Pre-Crisis Phase (April 10, 1962-January 5, 1976): Parliamentary elections were held on April 10, 1962, and the Jamaica Labor Party (JLP) won 26 out of 45 seats in the House of Representatives. The People’s National Party (PNP) won 19 seats in the House of Representatives. Sir Alexander Bustamante of the JLP was sworn in as prime minister by Governor Sir Kenneth Blackburne on April 29, 1962. Jamaica formally achieved its independence from Britain and became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations (CON) on August 6, 1962. Sir Kenneth Blackburne was appointed to serve as Governor-General of Jamaica, representative of Queen Elizabeth II (head of state), on August 6, 1962. Sir Clifford Campbell was appointed to serve as Governor-General of Jamaica on December 1, 1962. Parliamentary elections were held on February 12, 1967, and the JLP won 33 out of 51 seats in the House of Representatives. The PNP won 18 seats in the House of Representatives. Sir Donald Sangster of the JLP was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Clifford Campbell on February 23, 1967, but he died on April 11, 1967. Hugh Shearer of the JLP was sworn in as prime minister on April 11, 1967. Parliamentary elections were held on February 29, 1972, and the PNP won 37 out of 53 seats in the House of Representatives. The JLP won 16 seats in the House of Representatives. Michael Manley of the PNP was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Sir Herbert Duffus on March 2, 1972. Sir Herbert Duffus was appointed to serve as Acting Governor-General of Jamaica on March 2, 1973, and Sir Florizel Glasspole was appointed to serve as Governor-General of Jamaica on June 27, 1973.
Crisis Phase (January 6, 1976-February 10, 1989): Four government policemen and four civilians were killed in political violence in Kingston on January 6-9, 1976. Ten individuals were killed in political violence in Kingston on May 21, 1976. On June 19, 1976, the government announced a state-of-emergency after some 160 individuals had been killed in political violence since the beginning of the year. The parliament was dissolved on November 23, 1976. Parliamentary elections were held on December 15, 1976, and the People’s National Party (PNP) won 47 out of 60 seats in the House of Representatives. The Jamaica Labor Party (JLP) won 13 seats in the House of Representatives. Local elections were held on March 8, 1977, and the PNP won 237 out of 269 seats in the local councils. The government lifted the state of emergency on June 5, 1977. Government security forces ambushed and killed five JLP supporters in Port Henderson on January 5, 1978. Seven individuals, including three government policemen, were killed in political violence in Kingston on January 8-10, 1979. Five individuals were killed by gunmen on Gold Street in Kingston on April 20-21, 1980. On May 30, 1980, government troops were called out to restore order after riots broke out in Kingston. Parliamentary elections were held on October 30, 1980, and the JLP won 51 out of 60 seats in the House of Representatives. The PNP won nine seats in the House of Representatives. Edward Seaga of the JLP was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Sir Florizel Glasspole on November 1, 1980. Some 800 individuals were killed in election-related violence. Parliamentary elections were held on December 13, 1983, and the JLP won 60 out of 60 seats in the House of Representatives. The PNP had boycotted the parliamentary elections. Seven individuals were killed during demonstrations in January 1985. On August 26, 1988, Michael Manley of the PNP and Edward Seaga of the JLP signed an agreement to avoid violence during the upcoming elections. Parliamentary elections were held on February 9, 1989, and the PNP won 45 out of 60 seats in the House of Representatives. The JLP won 15 seats in the House of Representatives. Thirteen individuals were killed in election-related violence. Michael Manley of the PNP was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Sir Florizel Glasspole on February 10, 1989. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.
Post-Crisis Phase (February 11, 1989-September 22, 1998): Edward Zacca was appointed to serve as Acting Governor-General of Jamaica on March 31, 1991, and Sir Howard Cooke was appointed to serve as Governor-General of Jamaica on August 1, 1991. Prime Minister Michael Manley announced his retirement on March 15, 1992, and Percival Patterson was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Sir Howard Cooke on March 30, 1992. Eight individuals were killed in political violence in March 1992. Parliamentary elections were held on March 30, 1993, and the People’s National Party (PNP) won 52 out of 60 seats in the House of Representatives. The Jamaica Labor Party (JLP), which was headed by former Prime Minister Edward Seaga, claimed election fraud. Ten individuals were killed in election-related violence. The National Democratic Movement (NDM) headed by Bruce Golding was established on October 29, 1995. Parliamentary elections were held on December 18, 1997, and the PNP won 50 out of 60 seats in the House of Representatives. The JLP won ten seats in the House of Representatives. The Electoral Advisory Committee (EAC) invited international observers to monitor the elections. The International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) sent two observers to monitor the parliamentary elections from December 15 to December 20, 1997. The Carter Center/Council of Freely Elected Heads of Government (CC/CFEHG) sent 58 observers from eleven countries headed by Colin Powell and Jimmy Carter of the US to monitor the parliamentary elections beginning on November 21, 1997. One individual was killed in election-related violence. Prime Minister Patterson was sworn in for a second term by Governor-General Sir Howard Cooke on December 30, 1997. On April 24, 1998, the CC/CFEHG issued its final report on the parliamentary elections.
Crisis Phase (September 23, 1998-October 23, 2002): Government police arrested Donald Phipps, a community leader in west Kingston, on September 23, 1998. Supporters of Donald Phipps rioted in Kingston on September 23-26, 1998, resulting in the deaths of two civilians and one government soldier. Seven individuals were killed in anti-government demonstrations in Jamaica on April 20-22, 1999. William “Willie Haggart” Moore, a member of the People’s National Party (PNP), and two other individuals were killed in Kingston on April 18, 2001. PNP supporters clashed with Jamaica Labor Party (JLP) supporters in western Kingston in May and June 2001, resulting in the deaths of 37 individuals. Twenty-eight individuals, including three government policemen and one government soldier, were killed in political violence on July 7-10, 2001. Prime Minister Patterson ordered the deployment of some 3,000 troops to restore order on July 9, 2001. Some 180 individuals were killed in political violence between November 2000 and July 2001. Seven individuals were killed in political violence in Kingston on November 15-19, 2001. Seven individuals were killed in political violence in Kingston on January 3, 2002. Parliamentary elections were held on October 16, 2002, and the PNP won 34 out of 60 seats in the House of Representatives. The JLP won 26 seats in the House of Representatives. The Carter Center/Council of Freely Elected Heads of Government (CC/CFEHG) sent 60 observers from 16 countries headed by former President Jimmy Carter and former President Miguel Angel Rodriguez of Costa Rica to monitor the elections from September 27 to October 17, 2002. Some 60 individuals were killed in election-related violence. Three individuals were killed in political violence in Kingston on October 18, 2002. P. J. Patterson of the PNP was sworn in for another term as prime minister by Governor-General Sir Howard Cooke on October 23, 2002.
Post-Crisis Phase (October 24, 2002-May 17, 2010): Five individuals were killed in political violence in Kingston on November 16, 2002. Sir Kenneth Hall was appointed to serve as Governor-General of Jamaica on February 15, 2006. Portia Simpson-Miller of the PNP was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Sir Kenneth Hall on March 30, 2006. Parliamentary elections were held on September 3, 2007, and the JLP won 32 out of 60 seats in the House of Representatives. The PNP won 28 seats in the House of Representatives. The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) sent eight observers to monitor the parliamentary elections. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent 38 observers to monitor the parliamentary elections from August 24 to September 6, 2007. Twelve individuals were killed in election-related violence. Bruce Golding of the JLP was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Sir Kenneth Hall on September 11, 2007. Sir Patrick Allen was appointed to serve as Governor-General of Jamaica on February 26, 2009.
Crisis Phase (May 18, 2010-June 24, 2010): The government of Prime Minister Bruce Golding issued a warrant for the arrest of drug lord, Christopher “Dudus” Coke, on May 18, 2010. Government security forces launched an operation to capture drug lord, Christopher “Dudus” Coke, in Kingston on May 23, 2010. The government declared a 30-day state of emergency in parts of Kingston on May 23, 2010. A motion of no-confidence against Prime Minister Government security forces captured Christopher “Dudus” Coke near Kingston on June 22, 2010, and he was extradited to the U.S. on June 24, 2010. Some 73 individuals, including four members of the government security forces, were killed during the crisis.
Post-Crisis Phase (June 25, 2010-present): Andrew Holness of the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Sir Patrick Allen on October 23, 2011. Parliamentary elections were held on December 29, 2011, and the People’s National Party (PNP) won 42 out of 63 seats in the House of Representatives. The Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) won 21 seats in the House of Representatives. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent 25 observers from 16 countries led by Lisa Shoman of Belize to monitor the parliamentary elections. The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) sent seven observers from five countries led by Winston Estwick of Barbados to monitor the parliamentary elections on December 26-31, 2011. Portia Simpson-Miller of the People’s National Party (PNP) was sworn in as prime minister on January 5, 2012.
[Sources: Associated Press (AP), July 8, 2001, July 10, 2001, July 23, 2001, October 16, 2002, October 17, 2002, November 17, 2002; Banks and Muller, 1998, 470-473; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), December 19, 1997, September 10, 1998, September 24, 1998, September 26, 1998, April 23, 1999, January 5, 2001, July 9, 2001, July 10, 2001, July 11, 2001, July 12, 2001, July 23, 2001, October 14, 2002, October 17, 2002, October 19, 2002, June 9, 2003, October 26, 2003, March 31, 2006, August 28, 2007, August 31, 2007, September 3, 2007, September 5, 2007, September 7, 2007; Cable News Network (CNN), July 22, 2001, May 18, 2010, May 24, 2010, May 28, 2010, June 23, 2010, June 24, 2010, September 25, 2011, October 23, 2011, December 30, 2011; Caribbean Community (CARICOM) press release, December 29, 2011; Carter Center (CC) press release, April 21, 1998; Degenhardt, 1988, 187; Facts on File, March 5-11, 1972, January 24, 1976, July 17, 1976, December 25, 1976, January 12, 1979, July 19, 2001; Jessup, 1998, 354-355; Keesing’s Record of World Events, March 18-25, 1972, August 27, 1976, February 25, 1977, August 26, 1977, March 6, 1981, March 1984, February 1989, March 1992, March 1993, April 1993, December 1997; New York Times (NYT), December 18, 1997, May 17, 2010; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, August 24, 2007, August 30, 2007, September 4, 2007, December 14, 2011, December 30, 2011; Reuters, June 2, 2001, June 4, 2001, July 8, 2001, July 9, 2001, July 10, 2001, November 20, 2001, January 3, 2002, October 16, 2002, October 17, 2002, October 18, 2002, October 24, 2002, May 23, 2010, May 25, 2010, May 27, 2010; Voice of America (VOA), January 5, 2012.]
Selected Bibliography
Vasciannie, Lisa Ann. 2002. “Election Observation: The Case of the December 1997 Elections in Jamaica,” Social and Economic Studies, vol. 51 (2), pp. 117-154.