10. Nicaragua (1909-present)

Crisis Phase (October 10, 1909-October 27, 1910): General Juan Estrada led a Conservative rebellion against the Liberal government of President Jose Santos Zelaya beginning on October 10, 1909.  On December 1, 1909, the U.S. government imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government after the execution of two U.S. citizens, Lee Roy Cannon and Leonard Groce, serving as engineers for General Estrada.  President Zelaya resigned on December 16, 1909, and Jose Madriz became president by the Congress on December 21, 1909.  Manuel Morales, president of the Central American Court of Justice (CACJ), offered to mediate negotiations between the parties on April 27, 1910, but the mediation offer was rejected by General Estrada and President Madriz. Some 100 U.S. government troops were deployed to maintain order in Bluefields beginning on May 19, 1910.  Manuel Morales repeated his offer to mediate negotiations between the parties on June 23, 1910, but General Estrada rejected the mediation offer on July 24, 1910.  On August 20, 1910, President Madriz resigned after the defeat of government troops near Tipitapa on August 18, 1910. General Juan Estrada was appointed as provisional president on August 23, 1910, and rebel troops entered Managua on August 28, 1910.  U.S. peacekeeping troops were withdrawn from Bluefields on September 4, 1910.  U.S. Ambassador Thomas Dawson facilitated negotiations between President Estrada, General Emiliano Chamorro, General Luis Mena, and Adolfo Diaz beginning on October 19, 1910. The parties signed an agreement in Managua on October 27, 1910. The agreement provided for elections for the Constituent Assembly.

See the source image

Post-Crisis Phase (October 28, 1910-May 7, 1911): Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on November 27-28, 1910. Juan Estrada was elected president by the Constituent Assembly on December 31, 1910, and he was inaugurated on January 1, 1911.  The U.S. government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Estrada on January 1, 1911.  President Estrada dissolved the Constituent Assembly on April 4, 1911.

Crisis Phase (May 8, 1911-July 28, 1912):  President Estrada ordered the arrest of General Luis Mena, the Minister of War, on May 8, 1911. On May 9, 1911, President Estrada resigned after an unsuccessful attempt to seize control of the government, and Vice-President Adolfo Diaz assumed the presidency on May 10, 1911. Liberal rebels bombed Fort Loma near Managua on May 31, 1911, resulting in the deaths of some 60 individuals.  A new constitution went into effect on November 10, 1911.

Conflict Phase (July 29, 1912-October 9, 1912): General Mena led a Liberal rebellion against the government, and President Diaz requested military assistance from the U.S. government on July 29, 1912.  The CACJ established a three-member conciliation commission (Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Honduras) on August 5, 1912.  U.S. President Howard Taft agreed to intervene in support of the government on August 5, 1912, and some 2,600 U.S. government troops commanded by Rear Admiral William Southerland and Colonel Joseph Pendleton were deployed in support of the government in Corinto beginning on August 6, 1912. Some 132 individuals were killed during a rebel bombardment of Managua on August 11-14, 1912.  U.S. government troops killed 68 rebels near Masaya on September 19-20, 1912.  General Mena surrendered to U.S. government soldiers on September 25, 1912.  U.S. government troops clashed with Liberal rebels in Masaya on October 4, 1912, resulting in the deaths of four U.S. soldiers and 60 rebels.  U.S. government troops took control of Leon on October 6, 1912, resulting in the deaths of three U.S. soldiers.  The CACJ conciliation commission issued a report on October 6, 1912, which accused the Nicaraguan government of disregarding the commission’s attempts to mediate negotiations.  Government troops suppressed the rebellion on October 9, 1912.  Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

Post-Conflict Phase (October 10, 1912-May 1, 1926):  Adolfo Diaz of the Conservative faction was elected president on November 2, 1912, and he was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1913.  U.S. government personnel supervised the election.  The Liberal faction boycotted the presidential election.  Most of the U.S. troops were withdrawn from the country on January 9, 1913, although some 100 troops commanded by Captain Edward Greene remained to guard the U.S. legation in Managua.  General Emiliano Chamorro of the Conservative faction was elected president without opposition in October 1916, and he was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1917.  Five individuals were killed in election-related violence.  Diego Manuel Chamorro of the Conservative faction was elected president on October 4, 1920, and he was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1921.  The Liberal faction claimed election fraud.  U.S. government troops and Nicaraguan government police clashed in December 1921, resulting in the deaths of five government policemen and one U.S. soldier.  Some 150 U.S. government troops were deployed to reinforce the legation guard in Managua between January 25 and February 11, 1922.  Government police arrested some 40 individuals for plotting against the government in April 1922.  Congressional and municipal elections were held in 1922, and the Conservative faction won a majority of seats in the Congress and municipal councils.  President Chamorro died on October 12, 1923, and Vice-President Bartolome Martinez assumed the presidency on October 13, 1923.  Carlos Solorzano of the Conservative faction was elected president and Juan Bautista Sacasa of the Liberal faction was elected vice-president on October 5, 1924.  Carlos Solorzano was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1925.  The U.S. government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Solorzano on January 7, 1925.  U.S. troops were withdrawn from Nicaragua on August 3, 1925.  General Emiliano Chamorro led a Conservative rebellion against the government at Fort Loma near Managua beginning on October 25, 1925. Government police and Conservative rebels clashed in Managua on October 25, 1925, resulting in the deaths of two government policemen and 15 rebels.  President Solorzano appointed General Chamorro as commander-in-chief of the military, and dismissed Liberal members of the cabinet on October 26, 1925.  Vice-President Sacasa fled the country in November 1925.  The Nicaraguan Congress impeached Vice-President Sacasa on January 12, 1926. President Solorzano resigned on January 16, 1926, and General Chamorro temporarily assumed control of the government on January 17, 1926.  The governments of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and the U.S. government imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of General Chamorro on January 17, 1926.  More than 100 individuals were killed in political violence between October 1912 and May 1926.

Conflict Phase (May 2, 1926-December 26, 1932):  Some 50 Liberal rebels loyal to Vice President Juan Bautista Sacasa captured Bluefields in eastern Nicaragua on May 2, 1926, resulting in the deaths of several individuals.  After Liberal rebels captured several other towns in eastern Nicaragua, the Congress declared the country to be in a state-of-war on May 4, 1926.  Some 150 U.S. government troops from the USS Cleveland commanded by Captain John Wainwright and Lt. Commander Spencer S. Lewis were deployed to maintain a neutral zone in Bluefields from May 7 to June 5, 1926.  Government troops clashed with Liberal rebels near Muelle de los Bueyes on May 11, 1926, resulting in the deaths of nine government soldiers.  From exile in Guatemala, Vice President Sacasa appointed General José María Moncada as commander-in-chief of the rebellion on August 6, 1926.   On August 17, 1926, the Nicaraguan government accused the Mexican government of providing military assistance to the rebels,  In fact, Mexico had been providing military assistance to the Liberals since February 1926.  The Nicaraguan government referred the matter to the League of Nations (LON) secretary-general on August 27, 1926, and the LON secretary-general sent a fact-finding mission to Nicaragua.  The Mexican government denied the accusation on August 30, 1926.  Some 5,365 U.S. troops commanded by General Logan Feland were deployed to maintain neutral zones in Bluefields and Corinto between August 27 and October 27, 1926.  The U.S. government deployed 14 warships and 465 naval personnel to the region.  The U.S. government facilitated negotiations between representatives of the Conservative and Liberal factions beginning on September 12, 1926, and the factions agreed to a ceasefire on September 23, 1926.  U.S. President Calvin Coolidge imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the Nicaraguan government and Liberal rebels on September 15, 1926.  Government troops and Liberal rebels clashed near Sonata on October 15, 1926, resulting in the deaths of 17 rebels.  Lawrence Dennis of the U.S. facilitated negotiations between Conservative and Liberal representatives in Corinto on October 16-24, 1926.  General Chamorro resigned as president on October 30, 1926, and Sebastian Uriza was appointed as provisional president.  Government troops and Liberal rebels resumed military hostilities on October 30, 1926.  Some 30 Liberal rebels commanded by General Augusto César Sandino attacked government troops in the town of El Jicaro on November 2, 1926.  Adolfo Diaz of the Conservative faction was elected provisional president by the Nicaraguan Congress on November 11, 1926, and he was inaugurated as president on November 14, 1926.  The U.S. government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Diaz on November 17, 1926.  Former Vice-President Sacasa of the Liberal faction opposed the government of President Diaz, and he established a rebel government in Puerto Cabezas on December 1, 1926.  The Mexican government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the rebel government on December 7, 1926, and continued to provide military assistance to the rebels.  General Chamorro resigned as commander-in-chief of the military on December 8, 1926. Guatemala offered to mediate negotiations between the parties on December 8, 1926, but the government rejected the mediation offer on December 19, 1926. President Diaz requested military assistance from the U.S. government on December 23, 1926, and U.S. troops established neutral zones in Rio Grande Bar and Puerto Cabezas beginning on December 23, 1926.  The U.S. government lifted military sanctions against the government on January 5, 1927.  The U.S. government established additional neutral zones in Rama and Corinto on January 10-24, 1927.  The governments of Costa Rica and Guatemala offered to mediate negotiations between the parties on January 16, 1927, but the government rejected the mediation offer on January 22, 1927.  Government troops and Liberal rebels clashed near Chinandega on February 6-9, 1927, resulting in the deaths or wounding of some 1,000 individuals.  The U.S. government deployed some 1,600 troops in support of the government in Corinto on March 7, 1927.  Government troops and Liberal rebels clashed near San Geronimo on March 14, 1927, resulting in the deaths of some 130 individuals.  Liberal rebels commanded by General Augusto César Sandino captured Jinotega on March 28-29, 1927.  U.S. President Calvin Coolidge appointed Henry Stimson as special representative to Nicaragua on March 31, 1927.  U.S. troops were attacked by rebel troops near La Paz on May 1, 1927, resulting in the deaths of two U.S. soldiers.  U.S. Special Representative Henry Stimson facilitated the signing of a ceasefire agreement on May 12, 1927, but 200 Liberal rebels commanded by General Augusto César Sandino did not abide by the ceasefire agreement.  On May 15, 1927, President Diaz asked the U.S. government to supervise the upcoming presidential elections, and President Coolidge agreed to the request on June 10, 1927.  Some 300 Liberal rebels attacked U.S. troops in La Paz Centro on May 16, 1927, resulting in the deaths of two U.S. soldiers and 14 rebels.  Some 400 Liberal rebels led by General Augusto César Sandino attacked government troops and U.S. troops in El Ocotal on July 16, 1927, resulting in the deaths of some 60 rebels and one U.S. soldier.  U.S. troops attacked rebels near San Fernando on July 25, 1927, resulting in the deaths of eleven rebels.  U.S. troops were largely withdrawn from the country on August 27, 1927, except for 1,200 troops commanded by Colonel L. M. Gulick.  U.S. troops and rebel troops clashed near Telpaneca on September 19, 1927, resulting in the deaths of two US S soldiers and 25 rebels. Municipal elections were held on November 6, 1927.  U.S. government observers observed the municipal elections.  U.S. troops were attacked by rebel troops between Matagalpa and Quilali on December 30, 1927, resulting in the deaths of five US soldiers and two Nicaraguan government soldier. The U.S. government deployed some 5,800 troops in support of the government beginning on January 3, 1928.  The Nicaraguan Supreme Court appointed U.S. General Frank McCoy as chairman of the National Board of Elections on March 17, 1928.  General McCoy established the U.S. Electoral Mission to Nicaragua, which consisted of 352 U.S. chairmen of the electoral precincts and 2,500 U.S. soldiers, to supervise and provide security for the presidential election process between March 28, 1928 and December 15, 1928.  U.S. troops and Liberal rebels clashed on May 13, 1928, resulting in the deaths of two U.S. soldiers. Government troops, U.S. troops, and Liberal rebels clashed on July 16-26, 1928, resulting in the deaths of some 300 rebels.  More than 1,000 Liberal rebels took advantage of an amnesty offer between August and December 1928.  General José María Moncada of the Liberal faction was elected president by the Congress on November 4, 1928, and he was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1929.  General Augusto César Sandino and 25 rebels fled to Mexico on June 29, 1929, but he returned to the country in May 1930.  Government troops and Liberal rebels clashed on several occasions between January 1 and September 15, 1930, resulting in the deaths of some 125 individuals.  Congressional elections were held on November 2, 1930, and the Liberal faction won a majority of the votes.  U.S. Captain A. W. Johnson, chairman of the National Board of Elections, and 649 U.S. military personnel supervised the congressional elections from May 12 to November 2, 1930.  Eight U.S. soldiers were killed by rebels in Ocotal in February 1931.  General Sandino resumed military hostilities against the government on January 17, 1931.  U.S. Major Charles Price observed the election process from July to November 1931.  Former Vice President Juan Bautista Sacasa of the Liberal faction was elected president and Rodolfo Espinoza was elected vice-president by the Congress on November 6, 1932, and they were inaugurated on January 1, 1933.  U.S. Admiral Clark Howell Woodward, chairman of the National Board of Elections, and 400 personnel supervised the presidential elections beginning in June 1932. Government troops and U.S. troops commanded by U.S. Captain Lewis B. “Chesty” Puller defeated Liberal rebels at Punta de Rieles on December 26, 1932, resulting in the deaths of 31 rebels and three government soldiers.  Some 3,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

Post-Conflict Phase (December 27, 1932-June 2, 1936):  U.S. troops completed their withdrawal from Nicaragua on January 3, 1933.  General Agustino Cesar Sandino signed a peace agreement with representatives of the Conservative and Liberal factions in Managua on February 3, 1933.  The Mexican government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the Nicaraguan government on February 4, 1933.  President Sacasa was deposed in a military coup led by General Anastasio Somoza on June 2, 1936, and Brenes Jarquin was appointed as provisional president on June 9, 1936.  General Somoza of the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal – PL) was elected president on December 8, 1936. The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution on March 23, 1939.

Post-Crisis Phase (March 24, 1939-May 25, 1947):  Leonardo Arguella of the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal – PL) was elected president on February 2, 1947, and he was inaugurated as president on May 1, 1947. The opposition political candidate claimed election fraud.

Crisis Phase (May 25, 1947-October 11, 1977): President Leonardo Arguella was deposed in a military coup led by General Somoza on May 26, 1947, and Benjamin Lescayo Sacasa was appointed as provisional president on May 27, 1947.  The governments of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Panama imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government on June 3, 1947.  The U.S. government imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government on June 5, 1947.  The governments of Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Mexico imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government on June 7, 1947.  President Lescayo Sacasa dissolved the parliament on June 10, 1947.  Victor Romain Reyes was elected president in September 1947.  The National Assembly approved a new constitution on January 23, 1948, which outlawed the communist party. General Emiliano Chamorro, leader of the Conservative Party (CP), announced the formation of a campaign on December 4, 1949, which would promote the holding of free elections supervised by the Organization of American States (OAS).  President Reyes died on May 6, 1950, and General Somoza was elected provisional president by the Congress by May 21, 1950.  The U.S. government agreed to provide military assistance to the government on April 23, 1954.  President Somoza was assassinated on September 29, 1956, and Luis Somoza Debayle took control of the government on September 30, 1956.  President Luis Somoza Debayle declared a state-of-siege on September 30, 1956. President Luis Somoza Debayle of the PL was re-elected in May 1957.  The government suppressed a military rebellion led by General Ramon Raudales in northern Nicaragua on September 30-October 17, 1958. Some 110 Nicaraguan rebels invaded Nicaragua from Punta Llorona, Costa Rica on May 31, 1959.  Nicaragua referred the matter to the OAS Council on June 2, 1959.  On June 4, 1959, the OAS Council established a four-member commission of inquiry (Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, U.S.) to investigate the dispute.  The OAS commission of inquiry, which was chaired by Julio Lacarte of Uruguay, issued a report on July 16, 1959.  The report indicated that the exile invasion was organized in Costa Rica, but without the knowledge of the Costa Rican government.  Some 90 individuals were killed during the rebel invasion. Nine individuals were killed during a student demonstration in Leon on July 23, 1959. Government troops killed seven rebels near the Honduran border on February 29, 1960. Government troops and rebel troops clashed near the Costa Rican border on November 9-13, 1960. The Nicaraguan government requested military assistance.  U.S. warships were deployed in the Caribbean in support of the government from November 17 to December 7, 1960. President Luis Somoza Debayle rejected a demand by the CP in December 1960 that he request OAS supervision of the 1963 elections.  The Sandinista Front for National Liberation (Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional – FSLN) was established by Carlos Fonseca Amador, Silvio Mayorga, and Tomas Borge Martinez in opposition to the government on July 23, 1961.  The governments of the Soviet Union, Cuba, Libya, and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) provided military assistance to the FSLN.  Rene Schick Gutierrez of the PL was elected president on February 3, 1963, and he was inaugurated as president on May 1, 1963.  The OAS sent three short-term observers to monitor the presidential election.  Four individuals were killed in election-related violence. President Schick Gutierrez died on August 3, 1966, and Lorenzo Guerrero Gutierrez was elected as provisional president by the Congress on August 4, 1966.  Government troops suppressed anti-government demonstrations in Managua on January 22, 1967, resulting in the deaths of some 40 demonstrators and three government soldiers.  Msgr. Dante Portalupi, the papal nuncio, mediated a ceasefire agreement between the parties on January 23, 1967.  General Anastasio Somoza Debayle was elected president on February 5, 1967, and he was inaugurated as president on June 1, 1967. President Anastasio Somoza Debayle dissolved the Congress, and abrogated the constitution on August 31, 1971.  Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on February 6, 1972, and the National Liberation Party (Partido Liberacion National – PLN) headed by President Somoza Debayle won 60 out of 100 seats in the assembly. The OAS sent 12 observers to monitor the elections. President Somoza Debayle resigned on May 1, 1972, and a three-member council (General Robert Martinez Lacayo, Alfonso Lobo Cordero, and Fernando Aguero Rocha) took control of the government on May 2, 1972.  Legislative elections were held on September 1, 1974.  General Somoza Debayle was elected president on September 1, 1974, and he was inaugurated as president on December 1, 1974. FSLN rebels took 13 hostages in Managua on December 27, 1974. President Somoza Debayle declared martial law on December 28, 1974. The FSLN split into three factions following the death of Carlos Fonseca Amador on November 7, 1976: the Proletarios, the Guerra Popular Prolongada, and the Terceristas.  President Somoza Debayle lifted martial law on September 19, 1977.  Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

Conflict Phase (October 12, 1977-July 20, 1979): FSLN rebels launched a military offensive against government troops on October 12, 1977. Pedro Joaquin Chamorro Cardenal, editor of the newspaper La Prensa, was assassinated on January 10, 1978. Municipal elections were held on February 5, 1978. Government troops clashed with demonstrators in Masaya on February 22-23, 1972, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Masaya and Diriamba on February 26, 1972, resulting in the deaths of ten individuals. Eden Pastora (Commandante Cero) and 25 FSLN rebels seized the National Palace and took some 1,500 hostages in Managua on August 22, 1978. The hostages were released a couple days later after the government paid a ransom to the rebels. FSLN rebels attacked the town of Penas Blancas from bases in Costa Rica on September 10, 1978. President Somoza Debayle declared a state-of-emergency on September 11, 1978. Government military aircraft and troops attacked FSLN bases in Costa Rica from September 12 to November 21, 1978.  The US mobilized naval ships in the area between September 20, 1978 and October 1, 1978.  The OAS Council established a three-member conciliation commission (Dominican Republic, Guatemala, US), which attempted to mediate a resolution of the dispute from October 5, 1978 to January 15, 1979. The OAS Inter-American Commission on Human Rights sent a six-member fact-finding commission to Nicaragua on October 3, 1978. The OAS IACHR issued a report on November 17, 1978, which suggested that the Nicaragua government had violated human rights in a “grave, persistent, and generalized manner.” On December 15, 1978, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly condemned the government for human rights violations. FSLN factions united and formed a nine-member directorate in January 1979. FSLN rebels killed 55 government soldiers in northern Nicaragua on January 3-5, 1979. The US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government on February 8, 1979. The three factions of the FSLN re-united and formed a nine-member directorate on March 7, 1979. FSLN rebels launched a military offensive against government troops on May 28, 1979, and President Somoza Debayle declared a state-of-siege on June 6, 1979. On June 23, 1979, the OAS Council called for the “immediate and definite replacement” of the Somoza government. President Somoza Debayle resigned on July 17, 1979, and Sandinista rebels took control of Managua on July 19, 1979. A five-member junta, including Daniel Ortega Saavedra and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, took control of the government on July 20, 1979. Some 40,000 individuals were killed during the conflict, and some 500,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict.

Post-Conflict Phase (July 20, 1979-August 10, 1981): President Somoza Debayle resigned on July 17, 1979, and a five-member junta, including Daniel Ortega Saavedra and Violeta Chamorro de Barrios, took control of the government on July 20, 1979. The Sandinista government declared a state-of-emergency on July 24, 1979. The World Bank (WB) provided reconstruction assistance (urban reconstruction and industrial rehabilitation credit) to the government between January 4, 1980 and March 31, 1984.  Cuba provided military assistance (3,500 military advisers) in support of the Sandinista government beginning in 1980. The Soviet Union provided economic assistance to the Sandinista government beginning in 1980. The U.S. government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the Sandinista government on January 19, 1981 (the US terminated economic assistance on April 1, 1981).

Conflict Phase (August 11, 1981-April 1, 1988): The Nicaraguan Democratic Forces (FDN), headed by Colonel Enrique Bermudez Varela, was established in opposition to the Sandinista government on August 11, 1981. Argentina, Honduras, and the US provided military assistance to FDN rebels beginning in November 1981. The Sandinista government declared a state-of-emergency on March 15, 1982. The US mobilized naval ships and some 100 troops in the area as a show of force against the Sandinista government between June 14, 1983 and September 15, 1983.  The Peace Brigades International (PBI) established a mission consisting of 10 personnel to deter military hostilities in Jalapa, Nicaragua in September 1983.  The U.S. government ended military assistance to FDN rebels in May 1984. Saudi Arabia agreed to provide $12 million annually in military assistance to FDN rebels. The Soviet Union provided military assistance (weapons and ammunition) to the Sandinista government beginning in 1984.  Legislative elections were held on November 4, 1984, and the Sandinista National Liberation Front (SNLF) won 61 out of 96 seats in the National Assembly. Daniel Ortega of the SNLF was elected president with 67 percent of the vote on November 4, 1984.  The U.S.-based non-governmental organizations, the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA) and the International Human Rights Law Group (IHRLG), sent short-term observers to jointly monitor the legislative and presidential elections.  The U.S. government imposed economic sanctions (trade embargo) against the Sandinista government on May 1, 1985. The U.S. government provided military assistance to FDN rebels between June 1986 and February 1988.  The Nicaraguan government lifted the state-of-emergency on January 19, 1988.  Government and FDN representatives signed a ceasefire agreement on March 23, 1988, and a ceasefire formally went into effect on April 1, 1988. Some 30,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

Post-Conflict Phase (April 2, 1988-January 10, 1997):  The government imposed a state-of-emergency from October 20 to November 15, 1988.  On March 3, 1989, the government invited the OAS and the UN to monitor the upcoming presidential election. On August 25, 1989, the UN and OAS jointly established the International Commission for Support and Verification (CIAV) to facilitate the demobilization and resettlement of Contra rebels in Nicaragua.  On July 27, 1989, the UN Security Council authorized the establishment of the United Nations Observer Mission to Verify the Electoral Process in Nicaragua (ONUVEN).  The ONUVEN, which consisted of 237 election observers and 34 staff personnel headed by Elliott Richardson of the US, monitored the election process between August 25, 1989 and February 28, 1990.  On April 20, 1990, the UN Security Council expanded the mandate of the United Nations Observers Group in Central America (ONUCA) to monitor the ceasefire agreement and verify the disarmament/demobilization process in Nicaragua.  The ONUCA-Nicaragua consisted of 800 peacekeeping troops and 260 military observers from 11 countries commanded by Major-General Agustin Quesada Gomez of Spain.  Violetta Chamorro of the National Opposition Union (UNO) was elected president with 55 percent of the vote on February 25, 1990.  Legislative elections were held on February 25, 1990, and the UNO won 52 out of 91 seats in the National Assembly.  The OAS sent 433 long-term and short-term observers to monitor the election process from August 4, 1989 to March 20, 1990.  The Atlanta-based NGO, The Carter Center, sent 78 short-term observers to monitored the presidential election.  The Center for Democracy (CFD) sent 20 observers to monitor the elections.  The U.S. government lifted economic sanctions against the government on March 13, 1990.  The CIAV-UN was disbanded on June 30, 1990, and the ONUCA-Nicaragua completed its mission on July 5, 1990.  The World Bank provided reconstruction assistance (economic recovery credits and social investment funds) to the government between September 26, 1991 and December 13, 1997.  Government troops clashed with Re-Contras (former Contra rebels) in northern Nicaragua between December 22, 1992 and January 18, 1993, resulting in the deaths of 36 individuals.  Government troops clashed with Recompas (former Sandinista soldiers) in northern Nicaragua on July 21-22, 1993, resulting in the deaths of 45 individuals. Some 1,500 individuals were killed in political violence between 1990 and 1994.  Legislative elections were held on October 20, 1996, and the LA won 42 out of 93 seats in the National Assembly. The FSLN won 36 seats in the National Assembly.  Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo of the Liberal Constitutionalist Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista – PLC) and Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance (Alianza Liberal Nicaraguense – ALN)  was elected president with 51 percent of the vote on October 20, 1996, and he was inaugurated as president on January 10, 1997.  Daniel Ortega of the FSLN claimed election irregularities.  The OAS sent 98 long-term observers to monitor the election process from April 16 to October 31, 1996, and the OAS mission reported that the elections had been free and fair. The European Union (EU) sent 81 observers to monitor the elections. The Carter Center sent 47 short-term observers led by former U.S. President Jimmy Carter and former President Óscar Arias Sánchez of Costa Rica to monitor the elections beginning on October 17, 1996.  The National Democratic Institute (NDI), International Republican Institute (IRI), and the International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) sent short-term observers to monitor the elections. The Center for Democracy (CFD) sent 20 short-term observers to monitor the elections. Some 1,500 individuals were killed in political violence between April 1988 and January 1997.

Post-Crisis Phase (January 11, 1997-present): CIAV-OAS was disbanded on June 30, 1997. The EU sent a fact-finding mission to investigate political conditions on June 24-July 7, 2001.  Legislative elections were held on November 4, 2001, and the PLC won 47 out of 90 seats in the National Assembly. The FSLN won 43 seats in the National Assembly.  Enrique Bolanos Geyer of the PLC was elected president with 56 percent of the vote on November 4, 2001. The EU sent six election experts, eight long-term observers, and 108 short-term observers led by Jannis Sakellariou of Germany to monitor the elections from September 25 to November 22, 2001. The OAS sent 78 observers headed by Santiago Murray of Argentina to monitor the elections beginning in August 2001. The CC sent observers headed by former U.S. President Jimmy Carter and former President Oscar Arias of Costa Rica to monitor the legislative and presidential elections.  Daniel Ortega of the FSLN was elected president with 38 percent of the vote on November 5, 2006.  Legislative elections were held on November 5, 2006, and the FSLN won 38 out of 92 seats in the National Assembly.  The PLC won 25 seats, and the ALN won 23 seats in the National Assembly.  The OAS sent 183 observers headed by Gustava Fernandez Saavedra of Bolivia to monitor the elections.  The European Union (EU) sent 150 long-term and short-term observers led by Claudio Fava of Italy to monitor the elections from September 23 to November 6, 2006.  The Atlanta-based NGO, The Carter Center, sent 62 long-term and short-term observers to monitor the elections from September 8 to November 14, 2006.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), November 5, 2001; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 731-735, 805-810; Beigbeder, 1994, 164-169, 232-234; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 495-496, 518-520; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), September 9, 2005, October 11, 2005; Brogan, 1992, 472-495; Buell, 1930a, 315-343, 1930b, 385-402; Carter Center (CC) press release, December 6, 1996, September 24, 2001, November 1, 2001; Clodfelter, 1992, 691-692, 1169-1173, 1178-1179; Dodd 1992; Dodds, 1929, 488-496; Ellsworth, 1974, 120-133; European Report, September 26, 2001, 512, October 27, 2001, 512; European Union (EU), November 6, 2006; Facts on File, April 27-May 3, 1947, May 25-31, 1947, June 1-7, 1947, June 8, 1947, January 18-24, 1948, February 14-20, 1963, August 18-24, 1966, January 26-February 1, 1967, February 13-19, 1972, April 30-May 6, 1972, September 7, 1974, October 22, 1977, March 3, 1978, November 3, 1978, December 31, 1978, January 5, 1979, June 8, 1979, July 20, 1979, November 8, 2001; Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), October 16, 1978, October 27, 1978, December 6, 1978; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1909, 452-459, 1910, 738-767, 1911, 648-671, 1912, 1012-1071, 1926 (vol. II), 780-823, 1927 (vol. III), 285-350, 1928 (vol. III), 418-522; Hispanic American Report (HAR), January 1950, September 1956, October 1958, June 1959, August 1959, February 1960; Jessup, 1998, 525-527; Keesing’s Record of World Events, March 15-22, 1947, May 31-June 7, 1947, August 5-12, 1950, July 4-11, 1959, December 3-10, 1960, April 1-8, 1967, October 23-30, 1971, March 25-April 1, 1972, May 13-20, 1972, October 14-20, 1974, February 24-March 2, 1975, January 27, 1978, June 9, 1978, October 16, 1978, October 27, 1978, December 6, 1978, December 29, 1978, September 7, 1979, January 4, 1980, June 27, 1980, July 17, 1981, August 1983, December 1984, February 1990, January 1993, July 1993, October 1996, November 1996, January 1997; Langer, 1972, 858, 1068, 1243; Marley, 1998, 640-642; Munro, 1933, 696-705; Munro, 1934, 227-273; Munro, 1964, 160-216, 388-425; Munro, 1974, 157-254; Musicant, 1990, 137-156; Organization of American States (OAS), November 4, 2001, November 6, 2006, November 22, 2006; Radu and Tismaneanu, 1990, 291-305; Scheina, 2003, 55-72; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1926, 541-542, 1927, 479-516, 1928, 470, 1930, 397-406, 570, 1933, 596, 1936, 954; Tillema, 1991, 29-32; UN Chronicle, September 1990; Weisburd 1997, 227-232; Wright, 1964, 35-68.]