Crisis Phase (June 25, 1975-May 29, 1977): Mozambique formally achieved its independence from Portugal on June 25, 1975. Samora Machel, leader of the Front of the Liberation of Mozambique (Frente de Libertacao de Mocambicana – FRELIMO), was chosen as the first president of the country. The Cuban government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of Mozambique on August 29, 1975, and the U.S. government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of Mozambique on September 24, 1975. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion in Lourenco Marques on December 17-18, 1975, resulting in the deaths of six individuals. The government of the Soviet Union provided military assistance (weapons and 800 military advisers) to the FRELIMO government beginning in 1976. The Cuban government provided military assistance (600 military advisors) in support of the government of Mozambique beginning in February 1976. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.
Conflict Phase (May 30, 1977 – October 15, 1992): After FRELIMO declared itself to be a Marxist-Leninist party, the Mozambique National Resistance (Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana – RENAMO) headed by Afonso Dhlakama began a rebellion against the government on May 30, 1977. The conflict was largely fought between ethnic Makondes from northern Mozambique and ethnic Shanganas from southern Mozambique. The Rhodesian government provided military assistance to RENAMO rebels from 1977 to 1980. Local elections were held on September 25, 1977. Provincial assemblies approved 210 FRELIMO candidates for the People’s Assembly. The South African government provided military assistance to RENAMO rebels from 1980 to 1989. South African and Rhodesian military forces launched a joint raid against an oil storage depot in Beira, Mozambique in March 1979. The Tanzanian government agreed to provide military assistance (200 military advisors) to the FRELIMO government on February 15, 1982. The West German government agreed to provide economic assistance to the FRELIMO government in July 1982. The government of Zimbabwe deployed some 14,000 troops in support of the FRELIMO government beginning in July 1982. President Machel and Soviet leader Yuri Andropov met in Moscow in March 1983, after which the Soviet Union agreed to provide military assistance (military advisors) in support of the government. On March 16, 1984, the governments of Mozambique and South Africa signed an agreement, known as the Nkomati Accord, to end support for opposition groups in the two countries. The British government agreed to provide military assistance (military training) to the government on July 2, 1985. Government troops and Zimbabwean troops captured Gorongosa from RENAMO rebels in August 1985. RENAMO rebels recaptured Gorongosa on February 15, 1986. President Banda of Malawi expelled RENAMO supporters from camps in his country in October 1986, and Malawi eventually deployed some 700 troops in Mozambique to guard the Malawi-Nacala railway. Local elections were held on October 15, 1986. President Samora Machel and 34 other individuals were killed in a plane crash near Mbuzini, South Africa on October 19, 1986. Joaquim Chissano was elected as the new president by FRELIMO on November 6, 1986. Provincial assemblies approved 249 FRELIMO candidates for the People’s Assembly on December 15, 1986. The Tanzanian government deployed some 3,000 troops in support of the government beginning in March 1987. The South African government provided military assistance (non-lethal military equipment, including trucks) to the government beginning on November 28, 1988. The South African government offered to mediate negotiations between the parties, but RENAMO rejected the mediation offer on February 13, 1989. The government of the Soviet Union began withdrawing its military advisors from Mozambique in June 1989. President Mugabe of Zimbabwe and President Moi of Kenya began mediation in the dispute in August 1989. The Italian government, the Vatican City (represented by Archbishop Jaime Goncalves), and the Sant ‘Egidio Community established a four-member delegation, which mediated negotiations between government and RENAMO representatives in Rome beginning on July 8 1990. The parties signed a partial ceasefire agreement in Rome on December 1, 1990. The parties agreed to established the ten-member Joint Verification Commission (JVC) chaired by Ambassador Manfredi di Camerana of Italy, which included 38 personnel from Italy, Zimbabwe, Congo-Brazzaville, Kenya, Zambia, Britain, France, Portugal, Russia, and the United States, to monitor the ceasefire from December 19, 1990 to December 15, 1992. A new constitution providing for a multiparty political system went into effect on November 30, 1990, but RENAMO rejected the constitution. President Joaquim Chissano and Afonso Dhlakama signed the General Peace Agreement in Rome on October 4, 1992, which established a framework for ending the civil war. Government and RENAMO representatives agreed to a full ceasefire, which went into effect on October 15, 1992. Some 600,000 individuals were killed during the conflict. Some 3.5 million individuals were internally displaced, and some 2.2 million individuals fled as refugees to Malawi, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Swaziland, and Tanzania during the conflict.
Post-Conflict Phase (October 16, 1992-August 4, 2013): The United Nations High Commissioner of Refugees (UNHCR) provided humanitarian assistance to refugees in neighboring countries. UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali appointed Aldo Ajello of Italy as special representative to Mozambique on October 13, 1992. On December 16, 1992, the UN Security Security Council established the United Nations Operation in Mozambique (ONUMOZ) to monitor and verify the ceasefire agreement; to monitor and verify the withdrawal of foreign troops from Mozambique and to provide security in the transport corridor; to monitor and verify the demobilization of military forces; to monitor and verify the electoral process; and to monitor the civilian police. The military component of ONUMOZ consisted of 6,576 peacekeeping troops and military observers from 40 countries commanded by Major-General Lélio Gonçalves Rodrigues da Silva of Brazil. The civilian component of ONUMOZ, which consisted of 1,087 civilian police personnel commanded by Brig. General Ali Mahmoud of Egypt, was established on February 23, 1994. The electoral component of ONUMOZ, which consisted of 900 election observers, monitored the electoral process beginning on June 1, 1994. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) provided repatriation assistance to displaced individuals in 1993 and 1994. The Mozambique government and RENAMO signed an agreement on September 3, 1993, which provided for the establishment of a national police force administered by a Police Commission (COMPOL). The non-governmental organization (NGO), World Vision International (WVI), provided humanitarian assistance in 1993 and 1994. The UNHCR, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Save the Children Fund, and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) provided repatriation assistance to some 1.7 million refugees and 3 million internally displaced individuals from 1993 to July 24, 1996. The World Bank provided reconstruction assistance to the government between March 30, 1993 and December 31, 1998. The UN established the Accelerated De-mining Programme (UN-ADP) in June 1994. Legislative elections were held on October 27-29, 1994, and FRELIMO won 129 out of 250 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. RENAMO won 109 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. President Chissano of FRELIMO was re-elected with 53 percent of the vote on October 29, 1994, and he was inaugurated on December 9, 1994. The Organization of African Unity (OAU), Commonwealth of Nations (CON), and European Union (EU) sent personnel to monitor the elections. The UN Security Council endorsed the results of the election on November 21, 1994. ONUMOZ was disbanded on January 31, 1995. Twenty-six ONUMOZ personnel, including 23 military personnel and two civilian police personnel, were killed during the mission. Mozambique joined the CON on November 13, 1995. The UN-ADP was disbanded on February 29, 1996. Municipal elections were held on June 30, 1998, and FRELIMO won 33 out of 33 mayoral elections. RENAMO boycotted the municipal elections. The U.S.-based NGO, Carter Center, sent 13 observers to monitor the election registration process from August 10 to August 20, 1999. Legislative elections were held on December 3-5, 1999, and FRELIMO won 129 out of 250 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. RENAMO won 112 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. President Chissano was re-elected with 52 percent of the vote on December 4, 1999. The CON sent sixteen short-term observers from ten countries led by Brandford Taitt of Barbados to monitor the presidential and legislative elections beginning in November 1999. The Parliamentary Forum of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) sent eleven observers from nine countries to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from November 29 to December 7, 1999. The EU sent 64 observers from 15 countries headed by Pertti Paasio to monitor the presidential and legislative elections beginning on December 1, 1999. The Carter Center sent 50 observers from 16 countries led by Jimmy Carter of the US and Quett Masire of Botswana to monitor the presidential and legislative elections beginning on November 12, 1999. The EU mission issued a preliminary report on December 12, 1999, which suggested that the presidential and legislative elections were free and fair. RENAMO members of the Assembly of the Republic boycotted the legislature on November 9, 2000. Government police and RENAMO demonstrators clashed in northern Mozambique on November 9, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 41 individuals. Eighty-two RENAMO supporters, who had been arrested for their involvement in the demonstrations, died from asphyxiation in prison in Montepuez in Cabo Delgado province on November 21, 2000. Local elections were held on November 19, 2003. The EU sent seven election experts, 14 long-term observers, and 34 short-term observers headed by Jose Maria Mendiluce Perreiro of Spain to monitor the local elections from October 20 to December 6, 2003. The Carter Center sent 15 short-term observers to monitor the local elections from November 16 to November 21, 2003. Legislative elections were held on December 1-2, 2004, and FRELIMO won 160 out of 250 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. RENAMO won 90 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. Armando Guebuza of FRELIMO was elected president with 64 percent of the vote on December 1-2, 2004. The EU sent six election experts, 26 long-term observers, and 80 short-term observers headed by Jose Javier Pomes Ruiz of Spain to monitor the elections from October 13 to December 31, 2004. The Electoral Institute of Southern Africa (EISA) sent 35 observers headed by Brigalia Bam of South Africa to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections from November 23 to December 5, 2004. The Commonwealth of Nations (CON) sent ten observers and six staff members headed by Vaughan Lewis of St. Lucia to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections from November 15 to December 7, 2004. The Carter Center sent 60 observers headed by Jimmy Carter of the U.S. and Nicephore Soglo of Benin to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections from November 28 to December 4, 2004. The SADC sent short-term observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections. Armando Guebuza was inaugurated as president on February 2, 2005. Four individuals were killed during clashes between government policemen and demonstrators in Maputo on February 5-12, 2008. A mob attacked a Red Cross office in the village of Quinga in Nampula province on March 4, 2009, resulting in the deaths of two Red Cross employees and two government policemen. Thirteen individuals, who had been arrested and detained for their involvement in the killing of two Red Cross employees, died of asphyxiation while in police custody on March 17, 2009. Legislative elections were held on October 28, 2009, and the FRELIMO won 191 out of 250 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. The RENAMO won 51 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. President Armando Guebuza was re-elected with 75 percent of the vote on October 28, 2009. The African Union (AU) sent 22 observers led by Roberto de Almeida of Angola to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 23 to October 30, 2009. The SADC sent 98 observers led by Dr. Eustarckio Kazonga of Zambia to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 11 to October 30, 2009. The Electoral Commissions Forum (ECF) of the SADC sent 17 observers from eight countries led by Florence Mumba of Zambia to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 19 to October 30, 2009. The EU sent seven election experts, 24 long-term observers, and 100 short-term observers from 27 countries led by Fiona Hall of the United Kingdom to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from September 22 to November 21, 2009. The CON sent eleven short-term observers led by former President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah of Sierra Leone to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 21 to November 4, 2009. The Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) sent short-term observers to monitor the presidential and legislative elections. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) coordinated the International Observer Mission (IOM), which consisted of 67 observers from 12 countries, to monitor the presidential and legislative elections. The Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa (EISA) sent 23 short-term observers led by Dr. Christiana Thorpe of Sierra Leone to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 20 to October 30, 2009. Thirteen individuals were killed during riots over rising food and fuel costs in Maputo on September 1-3, 2010. Government policemen clashed with members of RENAMO in Nampula on March 8, 2012, resulting in the deaths of one government policeman and one RENAMO member. Government police raided RENAMO headquarters in the town of Muxúnguè in Sofala province on April 3, 2013, resulting in the arrest of 15 members of RENAMO.
Conflict Phase (April 5, 2013-August 1, 2019): RENAMO rebels attacked a government police station in the town of Muxúnguè in Sofala province on April 5, 2013, resulting in the deaths of four government policemen and one rebel. RENAMO rebels attacked a bus and a truck near the town of Muxúnguè in Sofala province on April 6, 2013, resulting in the deaths of three civilians. RENAMO rebels raided a government weapons depot in the town of Savane on June 17, 2013, resulting in the deaths of seven government soldiers. RENAMO rebels attacked three vehicles in central Sofala province on June 21, 2013, resulting in the deaths of two civilians. Government troops attacked a RENAMO camp in Muxúnguè district in Sofala province on August 10-11, 2013, resulting in the death of at least one government soldier. RENAMO rebels ambushed and killed seven government soldiers in Gorongosa district in Sofala province on October 17, 2013. Government troops attacked and captured the headquarters of the RENAMO in Gorongosa district in Sofala province on October 18-21, 2013. The RENAMO opposition announced that it was abandoning the 1992 peace agreement with the governing FRELIMO political party on October 21, 2013. The U.S. government appealed to the government and RENAMO to “de-escalate the current tense environment” on October 22, 2013. RENAMO rebels attacked three vehicles near the town of Muxúnguè in Sofala province on October 26, 2013, resulting in the death of one civilian. Thousands of individuals demonstrated against the “threat of armed conflict in the country” in Maputo, Beira, and Quelimane on October 31, 2013. On October 31, 2013, the U.S. government condemned the “reprehensible attacks” on civilians in Mozambique. Government troops clashed with RENAMO rebels in central Mozambique on November 5, 2013, resulting in the deaths of four government soldiers. Government troops clashed with RENAMO rebels in central Mozambique on November 16, 2013, resulting in the deaths of one government soldier and one rebel. Local elections were held on November 20, 2013. RENAMO boycotted the local elections. Gunmen killed Judge Dinis Silica in Maputo on May 8, 2014. Government troops clashes with RENAMO rebels on May 31-June 1, 2014, resulting in the deaths of at least 20 government soldiers. The U.S. government urged the Mozambican government to reach a peaceful settlement of the political crisis. On August 13, 2014, the Assembly of the Republic approved an amnesty law that allowed RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama to contest the upcoming presidential election. Representatives of the government and RENAMO signed a ceasefire agreement in Maputo on August 24, 2014. President Armando Guebuza and RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama signed a peace agreement in Maputo on September 5, 2014. Filipe Nyusi of the FRELIMO was elected president with 57 percent of the vote on October 15, 2014. Legislative elections were held on October 15, 2014, and the FRELIMO won 144 out of 250 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. RENAMO won 89 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. The AU sent ten long-term observers and 35 short-term observers led by the Honorable Justice Sophia Akuffo of Ghana from 24 countries to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from September 8 to October 17, 2014. The SADC sent 145 observers led by the Honorable Maite Nkoana-Mashabane of South Africa to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 3 to October 17, 2014. The EU sent six election experts, 20 long-term observers, and 20 short-term observers led by Judith Sargentini of the Netherlands to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from September 22 to October 17, 2014. The CON sent 14 short-term observers to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 9 to October 17, 2014. The Carter Center and the EISA sent 23 long-term observers and 64 short-term observers from 40 countries to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from August 25 to October 17, 2014. RENAMO claimed that the results of the elections were fraudulent. Filipe Nyusi was inaugurated as president on January 15, 2015. RENAMO rebels attacked government troops in Tete province on June 14, 2015. Islamic militants affiliated with the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) attacked police stations in the town of Mocímboa da Praia in Cabo Delgado province on October 5, 2017, resulting in the deaths of two government police officers and 15 civilians. Islamic militants killed ten individuals in the village of Monjane in the Palma district of Cabo Delgado province on May 27, 2018. Islamic militants killed 12 individuals in two villages in the Macomia district of Cabo Delgado province on June 3-5, 2018. Islamic militants killed 12 individuals in the village of Paqueue in Cabo Delgado province on September 21, 2018. Islamic militants killed seven individuals in the village of Piqueue in Cabo Delgado province on February 8, 2019. Islamic militants killed seven individuals in the Nangade district of Cabo Delgado province on July 3, 2019. On July 8, 2019, UN Secretary-General António Guterres appointed Ambassador Mirko Manzoni of Switzerland as his Personal Envoy for Mozambique. President Filipe Nyusi and RENAMO leader Ossufo Momade signed the Agreement on the Definitive Cessation of Military Hostilities in Gorongosa on August 1, 2019.
Post-Conflict Phase (August 2, 2019-present): President Filipe Nyusi and RENAMO leader Ossufo Momade signed the Maputo Accord for Peace and National Reconciliation (Maputo Accord) on August 6, 2019. The Russian government provided military assistance (two Mi-17 helicopters) to the Mozambican government on September 25, 2019. President Filipe Nyusi was re-elected with 73 percent of the vote on October 16, 2019. Legislative elections were held on October 15, 2019, and the FRELIMO won 184 out of 250 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. RENAMO won 60 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. The EU sent 170 election experts, long-term observers, and short-term observers from 31 countries led by José Ignacio Sánchez Amor of Spain to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from August 31 to November 13, 2019. The CON sent five observers led by former Vice President Stephen Kalonzo Musyoka of Kenya to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 10 to October 17, 2019. The AU sent four election experts and 40 short-term observers led by former President Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 10 to October 22, 2019. The Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) sent 17 observers to monitor the presidential and legislative elections. The SADC sent 61 short-term observers led by Oppah Muchinguri-Kashiri of Zimbabwe to monitor the presidential and legislative elections from October 7 to October 17, 2019. The Electoral Commissions Forum of SADC Countries (ECF-SADC) sent 16 short-term observers to monitor the presidential and legislative elections. Islamic militants attacked the town of Mocímboa da Praia in Cabo Delgado province on March 23, 2020. Islamic militants attacked the village of Xitaxi in Muidumbe district in Cabo Delgado province on April 7, 2020, resulting in the deaths of at least 52 individuals. On August 11, 2020, Islamic militants captured the town of Mocímboa da Praia after a week-long offensive, resulting in the deaths of more than 100 government soldiers and 70 militants. On November 11, 2020, UN Secretary-General António Guterres strongly condemned the “wanton brutality” committed by Islamic militants in Cabo Delgado province. Government troops recaptured the village of Muidumbe from Islamic militants on November 19, 2020, resulting in the deaths of 16 militants. Islamic militants ambushed and killed 25 government soldiers in the village of Muidumbe on December 4, 2020. The U.S. government provided military assistance, known as the Joint Combined Exchange Training (JCET) training program, to the Mozambican government beginning on March 15, 2021. Government troops and Islamic militants clashed in the town of Palma in Cabo Delgado province from March 24 to April 5, 2021, resulting in the deaths of at least 20 government soldiers, 40 civilians, and dozens of militants. On March 25, 2021, the Portuguese ministry of foreign affairs “strongly condemned” the Islamic militant attack against the town of Palma. Representatives of the Mozambican and Portuguese governments signed a defense cooperation agreement (military training) on May 10, 2021. Some 80 Portuguese military trainers were sent to Mozambique. On June 23, 2021, the SADC Summit of Heads of State and Government approved the establishment of the SADC Mission in Mozambique (SAMIM), which was deployed on July 15, 2021. The mandate of SAMIM included providing security, maintaining law and order, and protecting the provision of humanitarian assistance in the Cabo Delgado province. SAMIM consisted of some 2,200 peacekeeping personnel from eight countries, including South Africa (1,495 personnel), Angola (20 personnel), Botswana (296 personnel), Lesotho (125 personnel), Namibia (eight personnel), and Tanzania (274 personnel). Major General Xolani Mankayi of South Africa was appointed as SAMIM force commander and Mpho Molomo from Botswana was appointed as the SAMIM head of mission beginning on July 15, 2021. Some 2,000 Rwandan troops were deployed in support of the Mozambican government beginning on July 9, 2021. On July 12, 2021, the EU agreed to provide military assistance (training) to the Mozambican government. One SAMIM peacekeeping soldier from Botswana died in a vehicle accident on August 3, 2021. Brigadier General Nuno Lemos Pires of Portugal was appointed as the force commander of the EU Training Mission (EUTM-Mozambique) beginning on November 3, 2021. EUTM-Mozambique consisted of 140 military personnel. Government and Rwandan troops recaptured the town of Mocímboa da Praia in Cabo Delgado province on August 8, 2021. Government troops, along with SAMIM and Rwandan troops, launched an offensive against Islamic militants in Cabo Delgado province on September 25, 2021, resulting in the deaths of 19 militants and a SAMIM peacekeeping soldier from Tanzania. One SAMIM peacekeeping soldier from Lesotho died of an illness on September 28, 2021. One SAMIM peacekeeping soldier from South Africa was killed in clashes with Islamic militants in Macomia district in Cabo Delgado province on December 20, 2021. Islamic militants clashed with government troops, Rwandan troops, and SAMIM peacekeeping troops in Macomia district in Cabo Delgado province on February 5, 2022, resulting in the death of one government soldier and five militants. Islamic militants attacked the village of Namuembe in Cabo Delgado province on February 7, 2022, resulting in the deaths of seven militants and five other individuals. One SAMIM peacekeeping soldier from Botswana died in Mueda in Cabo Delgado province on February 9, 2022. President Filipe Nyusi appointed Adriano Afonso Maleiane as prime minister on March 3, 2022. One SAMIM peacekeeping soldier was killed during a joint operation with government security forces in Macomia district in Cabo Delgado province on June 9, 2022. SAMIM peacekeeping troops clashed with Islamic militants in Cabo Delgado province on November 29, 2022, resulting in the deaths of more than 30 militants and two SAMIM peacekeeping soldiers. Government troops killed three members of an Islamic militant group affiliated with ISIS, including the group’s leader Bonomade Machude Omar (Ibn Omar), in Cabo Delgado province on August 25, 2023. Islamic militants killed 11 individuals in the village of Naquitengue in Cabo Delgado province on September 15, 2023. Local elections were held on October 11, 2023, and FRELIMO won control of 64 out of 65 municipalities. RENAMO protested against the results of the local elections and alleged election fraud on October 27, 2023, resulting in the deaths of five individuals. Government troops clashed with Islamic militants near the town of Mucojo in Macomia district in Cabo Delgado province on February 9, 2024, resulting in the deaths of more than 20 government soldiers. More than 4,000 individuals have been killed in Cabo Delgado province and nearly one million individuals have been displaced as a result of the Islamic insurgency.
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Selected Bibliography
Alden, Chris. 1995. “The UN and the Resolution of the Conflict in Mozambique.” Journal of Modern African Studies 33 (no.1): 103-128.
Branco, Carlos. 2011. “Non-Governmental Organizations in the Mediation of Violent Intra-State Conflict: The Confrontation between Theory and Practice in the Mozambican Peace Process,” JANUS.Net e-journal of International Relations, vol. 2 (2), pp. 77-95.