Crisis Phase (October 23, 1923-November 11, 1938): The National Assembly formally proclaimed the Turkish Republic on October 23, 1923, and Kemal Pasha (Kemal Ataturk) was elected president by the National Assembly on October 29, 1923. The National Assembly adopted a constitution on April 20, 1924. The Turkish parliament approved the Law on the Maintenance of Order (Takrir-i Sukun Kanunu) in March 1925, which led to the arrest of some 7,500 individuals for anti-government activities and the execution of 660 individuals. The Progressive Republican Party (Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Firkasi – TCF) was established on November 17, 1924, and was disbanded by the government on June 3, 1925. The government suppressed an attempted assassination of President Kemal Ataturk on June 15, 1926. On July 12, 1926, sixteen individuals were convicted and sentenced to death for their involvement in the attempted assassination. Parliamentary elections were held on September 2, 1927, and President Kemal Ataturk was re-elected by the National Assembly on November 1, 1927. The government suppressed a Muslim rebellion near Smyrna on December 23, 1930, and 28 individuals were executed for their involvement in the rebellion. President Kemal Ataturk was re-elected by the National Assembly on May 4, 1931. Parliamentary elections were held in February 1935, and President Kemal Ataturk was re-elected by the National Assembly on March 1, 1935. Prime Minister Ismet Inonu resigned on October 25, 1937, and Mahmut Celal (Celal Bayar) formed a government as prime minister on October 26, 1937. President Kemal Ataturk died in Istanbul on November 10, 1938, and the National Assembly elected Ismet Inonu as president on November 11, 1938. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between October 1923 and November 1938.
Post-Crisis Phase (November 12, 1938-May 20, 1960): Prime Minister Celal Bayar resigned on January 25, 1939, and Refik Saydam formed a government as prime minister on January 26, 1939. Parliamentary elections were held on February 28, 1943, and the Republican People’s Party (RPP) won 455 out of 455 seats in the National Assembly. President Ismet Inonu was re-elected by the National Assembly on March 8, 1943. The Democratic Party (Demokrat Parti – DP) was established by Adnan Menderes, Mehmed Fuad Koprulu, Refik Koraltan, and Celal Bayar on January 7, 1946. Parliamentary elections were held on July 21, 1946, and the RPP won 395 out of 465 seats in the National Assembly. The DP won 64 out of 465 seats in the National Assembly, but the DP claimed election fraud. Recep Peker of the RPP formed a government as prime minister on August 7, 1946. President Ismet Inonu was re-elected by the National Assembly on August 5, 1946. Prime Minister Peker resigned on September 9, 1947, and Hassan Saka formed a government as prime minister on September 10, 1947. Parliamentary elections were held on May 14, 1950, and the DP won 408 out of 487 seats in the National Assembly. The RPP won 69 seats in the National Assembly. Celal Bayer of the DP was elected president by the National Assembly, and Adnan Menderes was appointed as prime minister on May 22, 1950. Parliamentary elections were held on May 2, 1954, and the Democratic Party (DP) headed by Prime Minister Adnan Menderes won 503 seats in the National Assembly. The Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi – CHP) won 31 seats in the National Assembly. Students demonstrated against the government in Istanbul on September 6-7, 1955, and the government declared martial law in Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. The Freedom Party (Hurriyet Partisi – HP) broke away from the DP in December 1955. President Celal Bayar dissolved the parliament on September 11, 1957. Parliamentary elections were held on October 27, 1957, and the DP won 424 seats in the National Assembly. The CHP won 178 seats in the National Assembly. Two individuals were killed in political violence in Gaziantep on October 29, 1957. The RPP claimed elected fraud in 15 provinces on October 31, 1957. President Bayar was re-elected by the National Assembly on November 1, 1957. Nine military officers were arrested for plotting to overthrow the government in December 1957. Government police and students clashed in Istanbul and Ankara on April 28-29, 1960, resulting in the deaths of ten students and two government policemen.
Crisis Phase (May 21, 1960-October 27, 1965): The government declared martial law throughout the country on May 21, 1960. President Bayar and Prime Minister Menderes were overthrown in a military rebellion led by Lt. General Jemal Gursel on May 27, 1960, and the 39-member National Unity Committee (Milli Birlik Komitesi – MBK) headed by Lt. General Gursel took control of the government on May 28, 1960. The MBK banned political party activity on May 28, 1960. Three individuals were killed in Ankara during the military rebellion. Britain, France, West Germany, and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on May 30, 1960, and the Soviet Union provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on May 31, 1960. The DP was suspended on August 31, 1960, and the party was dissolved on September 29, 1960. The Constitutional Assembly convened on January 6, 1961, and the government lifted the ban on political party activity on January 13, 1961. A new constitution was approved by 62 percent of the vote in a referendum on July 9, 1961. Former Prime Minister Menderes was executed by the government on September 17, 1961. Parliamentary elections were held on October 15, 1961, and the CHP won 173 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The Justice Party (Adalet Partisi – AP) won 158 seats in the National Assembly. Ismet Inonu of the RPP formed a coalition government as prime minister on November 20, 1961. General Gursel was elected president by the National Assembly on October 26, 1961. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion at the Turkish Military Academy led by Colonel Talat Aydemir in Ankara on February 22, 1962. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion at the Turkish Military Academy in Ankara on May 21, 1963. Prime Minister Inonu resigned on Decenver 2, 1963, but he formed a coalition government as prime minister on December 25, 1963. Prime Minister Inonu resigned on February 13, 1965, and Suat Hayri Urguplu formed an interim government as prime minister on February 21, 1965. Parliamentary elections were held on October 10, 1965, and the AP won 240 out of 450 in the National Assembly. The CHP won 134 seats in the National Assembly. Prime Minister Urguplu resigned on October 22, 1965, and Suleyman Demirel of the AP formed a government as prime minister on October 27, 1965. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.
Post-Crisis Phase (October 28, 1965-April 25, 1971): General Cevdet Sunay was elected president by the National Assembly on March 28, 1966. Parliamentary elections were held in 1969, and the AP won 256 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The CHP won 143 seats in the National Assembly. The Turkish People’s Liberation Army (Turkiye halk Kurtulus Ordusu – THKO) was established by Deniz Gezmis in opposition to the government in 1970. Prime Minister Demirel resigned on March 12, 1971.
Crisis Phase (April 26, 1971-March 31, 1987): Prime Minister Nihat Erim imposed martial law on April 26, 1971. Deniz Gezmis and 17 other members of the THKO were sentenced to death on October 9, 1971, and Deniz Gezmiz was executed on May 6, 1972. Five members of the THKO were sentenced to death on December 27, 1971. Prime Minister Erim resigned in April 1972. The Islamic fundamentalist Nationalist Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi – MSP) was established in October 1972. Fahri Koruturk was elected president by the National Assembly on April 6, 1973. Prime Minister Ferit Melen resigned on April 7, 1973, and Naim Talu formed a coalition government as prime minister on April 15, 1973. Parliamentary elections were held on October 14, 1973, and the CHP won 185 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The AP won 149 seats in the National Assembly. Fahri Koruturk was elected president by the National Assembly in 1973. Bulent Ecevit of the CHP was appointed prime minister in January 1974. Prime Minister Ecevit resigned on September 18, 1974, and Sadi Irmak formed a government as prime minister on November 17, 1974 (Prime Minister Irmak’s government was defeated on a vote of no-confidence on November 29, 1974). Government police and demonstrators clashed in Malatya province on February 16, 1975, resulting in the deaths of four individuals. Suleyman Demirel formed a National Front (NF) coalition government on March 31, 1975. Parliamentary elections were held on June 5, 1977, and the CHP headed by Bulent Ecevit won 213 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The AP headed by Suleyman Demirel won 189 seats in the National Assembly, and the MSP headed by Necmettin Erbakan won 24 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. Suleyman Demirel of the AP formed a coalition government, which consisted of the AP, MSP, and National Action Party (Milliyetci Hareket Partisi – MHP) headed by Alparslan Turkes, in August 1977. Municipal elections were held on December 11, 1977. Some 110 individuals were killed in political violence between August and December 1977. Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel’s coalition government collapsed as a result of a vote of no-confidence in the National Assembly on December 31, 1977. Eight individuals were killed in political violence near Ankara on August 8-11, 1978. Six members of the Labor Party (LP) were killed in Ankara on October 8, 1978. The government declared martial law in 13 provinces on December 25, 1978. Some 600 individuals were killed in political violence in 1978. Special parliamentary elections were held on October 14, 1979, and the AP won five out of five of the contested seats in the National Assembly. Six individuals were killed in election-related violence on October 14, 1979. Prime Minister Ecevit resigned on October 16, 1979, and Suleyman Demirel of the AP formed a government as prime minister on November 12, 1979. Ihsan Sabri Caglayangil, president of the Senate, was appointed as interim president on April 6, 1980. Former Prime Minister Nihat Erim was assassinated by a member of the left-wing Revolutionary Way (Dev-Yol) on July 20, 1980. Prime Minister Demirel was overthrown in a military coup on September 10-11, 1980, and the National Security Council (NSC) headed by General Kenan Evren and Admiral Bulent Ulusu took control of the government on September 12, 1980. The NSC imposed martial law and banned political parties throughout the entire country on September 12, 1980. Admiral Bulent Ulusu formed a government as prime minister on September 21, 1980. Some 460 individuals were killed in political violence from September 1980 to August 1981. The NSC banned all political parties on October 16, 1981. Six members of the Revolutionary Left (Dev-Sol) were sentenced to death for political assassinations on November 16, 1981. Five members of Dev-Sol were sentenced to death for political assassinations in Izmir on March 15, 1982. A new constitution was approved in a referendum on November 7, 1982, and General Evren was sworn in as president for a seven year term on November 9, 1982. President Evren lifted the ban on political parties on April 23, 1983. Nine members of the Communist Party of Turkey (CPT) were sentenced to death in Istanbul on May 25, 1983. The Welfare Party (Refah Partisi – RP) was established by Ali Turkmen on July 19, 1983. Parliamentary elections were held on November 6, 1983, and the Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi – ANAP) won 212 out of 400 seats in the National Assembly. The Populist Party (PP) won 117 seats in the National Assembly, and the Nationalist Democracy Party (Milliyetci Demokratik Partisi – MDP) won 71 seats in the National Assembly. The NSC was dissolved on December 6, 1983. Turgut Ozal of the ANAP formed a government as prime minister on December 13, 1983. The Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Parti – DSP) was established in March 1984. Seven members of Dev-Sol were sentenced to death for political assassinations in Istanbul on February 17, 1984. Two members of the MHP were sentenced to death for political assassinations in Izmir on May 11, 1984. Thirteen members of Dev-Yol were sentenced to death in Izmir on May 21, 1984. Twenty-seven members of the Turkish Workers’ and Peasants’ Liberation Army (Turkiye Isci Koylu Kurtulus Ordusu – TIKKO) were sentenced to death in Ankara on May 28, 1984. Ten members of TIKKO were sentenced to death in Diyarbakir on June 14, 1984. Four members of the Turkish People’s Liberation Party – Front (Turkiye Halk Kurtulus Partisi-Cephesi – THKP-C) were sentenced to death in Istanbul on September 28, 1984. Ten members of the THKP-C were sentenced to death in Istanbul on November 8, 1984. Six members of the Revolutionary Way (Dev-Yol) were sentenced to death on January 29, 1985. Three members of the THKP-C were sentenced to death in Izmir on March 26, 1985. Eleven members of Dev-Yol were sentenced to death in Erzerum on November 11, 1985. Three members of the MHP were sentenced to death for political assassinations in Ankara on July 15, 1986. Three members of the THKP-C were sentenced to death on August 5, 1986. Two members of Dev-Yol were sentenced to death in Erzurum on February 16, 1987. The government lifted martial law through the country on July 19, 1987. Some 5,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.
Post-Crisis Phase (July 20, 1987-present): Several offices of ANAP were bombed by terrorists on October 30-November 4, 1987, resulting in the death of one individual. Parliamentary elections were held on November 29, 1987, and the ANAP won 292 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The Social Democratic People’s Party (SDPP) won 99 seats in the National Assembly, and the True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi – DYP) won 59 seats in the National Assembly. On December 10, 1987, the government arrested eight members of the THKP-C for their involvement in the bombings of ANAP offices. President Kennan Evren announced the formation of a government headed by Prime Minister Ozal on December 21, 1987. Two members of Dev Sol were killed by police in Istanbul on May 1, 1988. Two members of the THKP-C were sentenced to death in Adana on June 28, 1988. Eight members of Dev-Yol were sentenced to death in Erzincan on August 21, 1988. Bulent Ecevit was elected chairman of the DSP on January 15, 1989. Local elections were held on March 26, 1989, and the ANAP won 22 percent of the vote. Two individuals were killed in election-related violence on March 26, 1989. Turgut Ozal was elected president by the National Assembly on October 31, 1989, and he was inaugurated as president on November 9, 1989. President Ozal appointed Yildirim Akbulut of the ANAP as prime minister on November 9, 1989. Mesut Yilmaz of Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi – ANAP) formed a government as prime minister on June 24, 1991. Parliamentary elections were held on October 20, 1991, and the True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi – DYP) won 178 out of 370 seats in the National Assembly. ANAP won 115 seats in the National Assembly, and the Social Democratic People’s Party (SDPP) won 88 seats in the National Assembly. Suleyman Demirel of the DYP formed a coalition government as prime minister on November 20, 1991. Eleven individuals were killed in a bombing in Istanbul on December 25, 1991. Government troops killed eleven members of Revolutionary Left (Dev-Sol) in Istanbul on April 17-18, 1992. Dev-Sol rebels killed five policemen in Istanbul on May 2, 1992. Dev-Sol rebels killed ten government policemen in Istanbul on March 18, 1993. President Ozal died on April 17, 1993, and Prime Minister Demirel was elected president by the National Assembly on May 16, 1993. Erdal Inonu of the Social Democratic People’s Party (SDPP) was appointed as acting-prime minister on May 16, 1993. Tansu Ciller of the DYP formed a coalition government as prime minister on June 25, 1993. Thirty-seven individuals were killed in a bombing in Sivas on July 3, 1993. Local elections were held on March 27, 1994, and the DYP won 23 percent of the vote. The ANAP won 21 percent of the vote, and the Welfare Party (Refah Partisi – RP) won 18 percent of the vote. The SDPP merged with the Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyetci Halk Partisi – CHP) in 1994. Dursan Karatas, leader of the Dev-Sol, was arrested in Menton, France on September 9, 1994. Prime Minister Ciller resigned on September 20, 1995. President Demirel re-appointed Tansu Ciller as interim prime minister on October 31, 1995. Parliamentary elections were held on December 24, 1995, and the RP won 158 out of 550 seats in the National Assembly. The DYP won 135 seats in the National Assembly, and the ANAP won 132 seats in the National Assembly. Mesut Yilmaz of the ANAP formed a coalition government as prime minister on March 6, 1996. The DYP withdrew from the coalition government on May 24, 1996. Necmettin Erbakan, leader of the RP, formed a coalition government as prime minister on June 28, 1996. Mesut Yilmaz of the ANAP formed a government as prime minister on June 30, 1997. The Virtue Party (Fazilet Partisi – FP) was established by Recai Kutan on December 17, 1997. The government banned the RP on January 16, 1998, and the RP was formally dissolved on February 22, 1998. The government of Prime Minister Yilmaz collapsed following a vote of no-confidence on November 25, 1998. Bulent Ecevit of the DSP formed a government as prime minister on January 11, 1999. Parliamentary elections were held on April 18, 1999, and the Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Partisi – DSP) won 136 out of 550 seats in the National Assembly. The Nationalist Action Party (Milliyetci Hareket Partisi – MHP) won 129 seats in the National Assembly, and the FP won 111 seats in the National Assembly. Prime Minister Ecevit formed a new coalition (DSP-ANAP-MHP) government on May 29, 1999. Ahmet Necdet Sezer, chief justice of the constitutional court, was elected president by the National Assembly on May 16, 2000. The Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi – AKP) was established by former members of the RP on August 14, 2001. Parliamentary elections were held on November 3, 2002, and the AKP won 360 out of 550 seats in the National Assembly. The CHP won 190 seats in the National Assembly. Abdullah Gul of the AKP was appointed as prime minister on November 16, 2002, and the government of Prime Minister Gul was approved by the parliament on November 28, 2002. Prime Minister Abdullah Gul resigned on March 11, 2003, and Recep Tayyip Erdogan, leader of the AKP, was named prime minister.
[Sources: Associated Press (AP), November 28, 2002, March 11, 2003; Banks and Muller, 1998, 930-938; Clodfelter, 1992, 621-622, 1066; Degenhardt, 1988, 375-384; Facts-on-File, May 12-18, 1950, May 19-25, 1950, April 21-27, 1960, May 26-June 1, 1960, November 16-22, 1961, February 22-28, 1962, March 8, 1975, June 11, 1977, December 31, 1977, October 27, 1978; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1909, 562-584; Jessup, 1998, 759-764; Keesing’s Record of World Events, August 17-24, 1946, November 2, 1957, July 2-9, 1960, September 24-October 1, 1960, November 26-December 3, 1960, March 6-13, 1965, October 23-30, 1965, April 23-29, 1973, May 28-June 3, 1973, February 4-10, 1974, January 1-5, 1975, April 28-May 4, 1975, March 14, 1980, October 31, 1980, January 2, 1981, April 1983, March 1985, July 1986, October 1991, November 1991, March 1993, April 1993, May 1993, July 1993, March 1994, September 1994, December 1994, March 1994, September 1995, October 1995, December 1995, May 1996, June 1996, June 1997, January 1998, February 1998, November 1998, December 1998, January 1999, April 1999, May 1999; Langer, 1972, 776-777, 1085-1088, 1297-1298; Lewis, 1955/1965, 86-131; Middle East Journal (MEJ), Summer 1984, Winter 1987, Summer 1988, Spring 1989, Winter 1991, Summer 1992; Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA), December 1997, September 1999; New York Times (NYT), November 17, 2002; Reuters, November 3, 2002, March 11, 2003; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925 (supplement), 228-232; Zurcher 1993.]
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