Pre-Crisis Phase (October 27, 1991-November 24, 2002): Turkmenistan declared its independence from the Soviet Union on October 27, 1991. A new constitution was approved by the parliament on May 18, 1992. President Saparmurad Atayevich Niyazov of the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan (DPT) was re-elected without opposition on June 21, 1992. Parliamentary elections were held on December 11, 1994, and the DPT won 49 out of 50 seats in the parliament. Anti-government demonstrations occurred in Ashgabat on July 12, 1995, and eight opposition leaders were arrested for their involvement in the demonstrations. Several opposition political groups merged to form the Social Democratic Party (SDP) on August 1996. Parliamentary elections were held on April 5, 1998, and the DPT won 50 out of 50 seats in the parliament. Durdymurat Khojamukhammed, a leader of the banned Democratic Progress Party (DPP), was released from custody on April 17, 1998. Opposition leader Avdy Kuliyev was released from custody on April 20, 1998. Human Rights Watch (HRW) sent a four-member fact-finding mission to investigate human rights conditions in the country on January 29, 1999 (the mission was invited by the government of Turkmenistan). Opposition leader Khoshali Garaev died in prison on September 10, 1999. Parliamentary elections were held on December 12, 1999, and the DPT won 50 out of 50 seats in the parliament. Turkmenistan’s National Forum named Saparmurad Niyazov as president-for-life on December 29, 1999. On February 28, 2000, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) condemned the government for prison sentences imposed on two opposition activists, Nurberdy Nurmamedov and Murad Nurmamedov. On March 18, 2000, the US condemned the government for prison sentences imposed on the two opposition activists. On April 30, 2002, the OSCE condemned the government for an “absolute lack of any freedom of expression.”
Crisis Phase (November 25, 2002-February 14, 2007): Turkmenistan’s four main opposition groups established a “united front” (Union of Democratic Forces of Turkmenistan) against the government of President Niyazov on September 29, 2003. Parliamentary elections were held on December 19, 2004, and the DPT won 50 out of 50 seats in the parliament. President Niyazov died of a heart attack on December 21, 2006, and Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov was named acting president on December 21, 2006.
Post-Crisis Phase (February 15, 2007-present):
[Sources: Bank and Muller, 938-940; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), December 12, 1999, February 28, 2000, March 18, 2000, December 19, 2004, December 20, 2004, April 8, 2005, December 21, 2006, December 22, 2006; Keesing’s Record of World Events, June 1992, December 1994, April 1998, December 1999; Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Parliamentary Assembly (PA)/Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) press release, December 9, 1999; Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL), August 12, 1996, July 11, 1997, April 21, 1998, February 3, 1999, September 17, 1999, December 13, 1999, December 30, 1999, April 30, 2002, December 16, 2004, December 20, 2004; Washington Post, December 21, 2004.]