Pre-Crisis Phase (February 25, 1910-December 3, 1928): On February 25, 1910, interim president General Ramón González Valencia issued a national decree calling for the convening of a National Constituent Assembly to consider reforms to the Colombian Constitution of 1886. The Constituent National Assembly elected Carlos Eugenia Restrepo of the Republican Union (Unión Republicana – UR) as president of Colombia on July 15, 1910. Carlos Eugenia Restrepo was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1910. The Constituent National Assembly adopted constitutional amendments banning the involvement of the Colombian military in politics and providing for the direct popular elections for president every four years. Congressional elections were held in May 1911. Jose Vicente Concha of the Colombian Conservative Party (Partido Conservador Colombiano – PCC) was elected president with 89 percent of the vote on February 10, 1914. Jose Vicente Concha was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1914. Marco Fidel Suárez of the PCC was elected president with 54 percent of the vote on February 10, 1918. Marco Fidel Suárez was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1918. President Suárez resigned on November 9, 1921, and General Jorge Holguin was sworn in as president on November 10, 1921. Pedro Nel Ospina Vásquez of the PCC was elected president with 62 percent of the vote in February 1922. The PLC claimed widespread election fraud and voter intimidation. Pedro Nel Ospina Vásquez was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1922. Miguel Abadía Méndez of the PCC was elected president with 99 percent of the vote on February 14, 1926. Miguel Abadía Méndez was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1926. On October 6, 1928, the Union of the Workers of Magdalena (Unión Sindical de Trabajadores del Magdalena – USTM), representing banana plantation workers employed by United States-based United Fruit Company, presented the company with nine demands, including a six-day work week, eight-hour days, and compensation for job-related accidents. On November 12, 1928, some 25,000 banana plantation workers went on strike in the Department of Magdalena after the demands were rejected by the company.
Crisis Phase (December 4, 1928-November 30, 1949): President Miguel Abadía Méndez declared a state-of-siege on December 4, 1928. Government troops fired on striking workers in the town square in Ciénaga on December 6, 1928, resulting in deaths that may have exceeded 1,000 individuals. Some 1,400 individuals were killed in political violence in July 1929. Enrique Olaya Herrera of the Colombian Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Colombiano – PLC) was elected president with 45 percent of the vote on February 9, 1930. Enrique Olaya Herrera was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1930. Liberal police massacred several conservative peasants in the town of Capitanejo in the Department of Santander in December 1930. Congressional elections were held on May 10, 1931, and the PLC won 51 percent of the vote in elections for the 118-seat House of Representatives. Congressional elections were held on May 14, 1933, and the PLC won 74 out of 118 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC claimed election fraud. Alfonso López Pumarejo of the PLC was elected president without opposition on February 11, 1934. The PCC boycotted the presidential election. Congressional elections were held on May 26, 1935, and the PLC won 118 out of 119 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC boycotted the congressional elections. President Alfonso López Pumarejo launched the reformist program, “Revolution on the March” (Revolución en Marcha), to modernize and industrialize the country. Congressional elections were held on April 4, 1937, and the PLC won 119 out of 119 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC boycotted the congressional elections. Eduardo Santos Montejo of the PLC was elected president on May 1, 1938. Eduardo Santos Montejo was inaugurated as president in August 1938. Congressional elections were held in February 1939, and the PLC won 64 percent of the vote for seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 35 percent of the vote. Congressional elections were held on March 16, 1941, and the PLC won 64 percent of the vote for seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 35 percent of the vote for seats in the House of Representatives. Alfonso López Pumarejo of the PLC was elected president on May 2, 1942. Alfonso López Pumarejo was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1942. The government submitted a revised concordat with the Vatican to the House of Representatives for ratification, but Senator Laureano Gómez Castro of the PCC opposed the ratification. Congressional elections were held in February 1943, and the PLC won 64 percent of the vote for seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 34 percent of the vote for seats in the House of Representatives. While President Alfonso López Pumarejo was out of the country taking care of his ailing wife, Darío Echandía Olaya served as acting president from November 17, 1943 to May 16, 1944. The government suppressed several conservative rebellions in July 1944. Congressional elections were held in February 1945, and the PLC won 80 out of 131 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 47 seats in the House of Representatives. President Alfonso López Pumarejo resigned on July 31, 1945, and Alberto Lleras Camargo was appointed as provisional president by the House of Representatives on August 1, 1945. Mariano Ospina Pérez of the PCC was elected president with 42 percent of the vote on May 4, 1946. Mariano Ospina Pérez was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1946. Congressional elections were held on March 16, 1947, and the PLC won 73 out of 131 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 58 seats in the House of Representatives. Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, leader of the PLC, was assassinated in Bogotá on April 9, 1948. Some 1,500 individuals were killed in political violence in Bogotá and other cities on April 9-12, 1948. The PLC withdrew from the cabinet of President Mariano Ospina Pérez on May 22, 1949. Congressional elections were held on June 5, 1949, and the PLC won 69 out of 132 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 63 seats in the House of Representatives. Some ten individuals were killed in election-related violence. Dario Echandia, presidential candidate of the PLC, withdrew from the presidential race on November 7, 1949. President Mariano Ospina Pérez declared a state-of-siege on November 9, 1949. Laureano Gómez Castro of the PCC was elected president without opposition on November 27, 1949. The PLC boycotted the presidential election. More than 2,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.
Conflict Phase (December 1, 1949-December 1, 1957): Supporters of the PLC launched a rebellion against the Conservative-led government beginning in December 1949. Laureano Gómez Castro was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1950. Congressional elections were held on September 16, 1951, and the PCC won 71 out of 132 seats in the House of Representatives. Sixty-one seats remained vacant. The PLC boycotted the congressional elections. Thirteen individuals were killed in political violence in Huila province on September 19, 1951. Some 50,000 individuals were internally displaced as a result of the political violence. The U.S. government agreed to provide military assistance to the Colombian government on April 17, 1952. Liberals attacked the Palanquero military air base near Puerto Salgar on January 1, 1953, resulting in the deaths of 60 Liberals and seven government soldiers. Congressional elections were held on March 15, 1953, and the PCC won 76 out of 132 seats in the House of Representatives. Fifty-six seats remained vacant. The PLC boycotted the congressional elections. President Gomez Castro was deposed in a military rebellion on June 13, 1953, and General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla took control of the government on June 14, 1953. The PLC resumed political party activity on June 17, 1953. Twelve students were killed by government police in June 1954. General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla was elected president by the National Constitutional Assembly on August 3, 1954. General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1954. Eleven civilians were killed by Liberals in Tolima province on November 6, 1954. Government troops and Liberals clashed near Genova on November 10, 1954, resulting in the deaths of 30 individuals. Government troops and Liberals clashed in Tolima province on March 17-19, 1955, resulting in the deaths of 28 individuals. Seven individuals were killed in political violence in Valle province on March 19-22, 1955. Government police and demonstrators clashed in Bogotá on February 5, 1956, resulting in the deaths of nine individuals. On June 24, 1956, representatives of the PCC and PLC signed an agreement to established the National Front (Frente Nacional). Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Bogotá and Cali on May 2-7, 1957, resulting in the deaths of 100 individuals. President Rojas Pinilla was re-elected by the House of Representatives on May 8, 1957. President Gustavo Rojas Pinilla was overthrown in a military rebellion on May 10, 1957, and a five-member military junta headed by General Gabriel Paris took control of the government on May 11, 1957. On July 26, 1957, the military junta dissolved the House of Representatives following several days of unrest. The PLC and PCC signed the Pact of Sitges in July 1957, which provided for a PLC-PCC coalition government. The Pact of Sitges was approved in a referendum held on December 1, 1957. Some 200,000 individuals were killed, and some 200,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict.
Post-Conflict Phase (December 2, 1957-January 6, 1965): Congressional elections were held on March 16, 1958. The PLC and PCC agreed to evenly split the 148 seats in the House of Representatives and 80 seats in the Senate. Alberto Lleras Camargo of the National Front (PLC-PCC coalition) was elected president with 80 percent of the vote on May 4, 1958. Alberto Lleras Camargo was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1958. Thirty-one individuals were killed in election-related violence in several provinces on May 4, 1958. The government lifted the state-of-siege on August 27, 1958. President Alberto Lleras Camargo formed a cabinet consisting of six members of the PLC and six members of the PCC on March 24, 1959. Congressional elections were held on March 20, 1960, and the PLC and PCC were each allocated 76 seats in the 152-seat House of Representatives. Former president Gustavo Rojas Pinilla founded the National Popular Alliance (Alianza Nacional Popular – ANAPO) in 1961. On October 11, 1961, President Lleras Camargo declared a state-of-siege after a military rebellion near Bogotá, resulting in the death of one individual. Forty-seven individuals were killed in political violence in Valle on January 21, 1962. Congressional elections were held on March 18, 1962, and the PLC and PCC were each allocated 92 seats in the 184-seat House of Representatives. Guillermo León Valencia of the National Front (PLC-PCC coalition) was elected president on May 6, 1962, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1962. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence between August 1958 and August 1962. Guillermo León Valencia was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1962. Congressional elections were held on March 15, 1964, and the PLC and PCC were each allocated 92 seats in the 184-seat House of Representatives. The National Liberation Army (Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional – ELN) was established by Fabio Vasquez Castano and Ricardo Lara Parada on July 4, 1964.
Conflict Phase (January 7, 1965-May 28, 1984): The ELN began a rebellion against the government in northeastern Colombia on January 7, 1965. President Leon Valencia declared a state-of-emergency after several weeks of student demonstrations and violence in May 1965. Government troops and ELN rebels clashed in Santander province on February 15, 1966, resulting in the deaths of five rebels and four government soldiers. Congressional elections were held on March 20, 1966, and the PLC and PCC were each allocated 95 seats in the 190-seat House of Representatives. The Colombian Revolutionary Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia – FARC), the armed wing of the Communist Party of Colombia (Partido Communista de Colombia) was established in opposition to the government in April 1966. Carlos Lleras Restrepo of the PLC was elected president with 72 percent of the vote on May 1, 1966. Carlos Lleras Restrepo was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1966. The People’s Liberation Army (Ejercito Popular de Liberacion – EPL) was established by the Communist Party of Colombia-Marxist-Leninist (Partido Communista de Colombia-Marxist-Leninist – PCC-ML) in opposition to the government in December 1967. Congressional elections were held on March 17, 1968, and the PLC and PCC were each allocated 102 seats in the 204-seat House of Representatives. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) established a mission to provide humanitarian assistance to individuals displaced during the conflict beginning in 1969. Misael Pastrana Borrero of the PCC was elected president on April 19, 1970. President Lleras Restrepo declared a nationwide state-of-siege on July 19, 1970. Misael Pastrana Borrero was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1970. Provincial and municipal elections were held on April 16, 1972. Five individuals were killed in election-related violence. The government lifted the state-of-siege on December 29, 1973. The April 19 Movement (M-19) was established in opposition to the government in January 1974. Two individuals were killed in political violence in Bogotá on April 19, 1974, and five individuals were killed in political violence in the village of Yacopi on April 19, 1974. Alfonzo Lopez Michelsen of the PLC was elected president with 56 percent of the vote on April 21, 1974. Alfonzo Lopez Michelsen was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1974. Congressional elections were held on April 21, 1974, and the PLC won 113 out of 199 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 66 seats in the House of Representatives. FARC rebels attacked Puerto Rico on April 10, 1975, resulting in the deaths of two government policemen. Three individuals were killed in political violence in La Dorada on June 13, 1975. FARC rebels attacked Mutata on June 20, 1975, resulting in the deaths of two government officials and one government policeman. Government troops and ELN rebels clashed near Morales on June 25, 1975, resulting in the deaths of three government soldiers and three rebels. President Lopez Michelsen declared a state of siege on June 26, 1975. Municipal elections were held on April 18, 1976. The government lifted the state of siege on June 22, 1976. The government declared a state of siege on October 7, 1976. Congressional elections were held on February 26, 1978, and the PLC won 111 out of 199 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 83 seats in the House of Representatives. Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala of the PLC was elected president on June 4, 1978. Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1978. Amnesty International, a human rights non-governmental organization (NGO), condemned the government for human rights abuses on April 1, 1980. The Organization of American States (OAS)/Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) investigated human rights conditions in Colombia beginning on April 21, 1980. FARC rejected an amnesty offer by President Turbay Ayala on June 17, 1980. The OAS/IACHR issued a report on human rights conditions in Colombia on June 30, 1981. Amnesty International condemned the government for human rights abuses on September 22, 1980. Congressional elections were held on March 14, 1982, and the PLC won 104 out of 199 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 82 seats in the House of Representatives. Belisario Betancur Cuartas of the PCC was elected president with 47 percent of the vote on May 30, 1982. Belisario Betancur Cuartas was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1982. President Turbay Ayala lifted the state of siege on June 20, 1982. FARC rebels killed 162 civilians, 13 government soldiers, and 10 government police in 1982. Jaime Bateman Cayon, leader of the M-19 rebels, died in an airplane crash on April 28, 1983. M-19 rebels attacked the Florencia prison in Caqueta on March 14, 1984, resulting in the deaths of 26 rebels, four civilians, and one prison guard. FARC and M-19 rebels attacked Corinto (Cauca) on April 4, 1984, resulting in the deaths of 30 rebels, two government soldiers, and one policeman. The government declared a state of siege on May 1, 1984. The government and FARC signed the Uribe Agreements, which provided for a cessation of military hostilities beginning on May 28, 1984. Some 60,000 individuals were killed during the conflict between 1965 and 1984.
Post-Conflict Phase (May 29, 1984-June 15, 1987): EPL rebels killed five individuals in Bogotá on July 24, 1984. FARC and M-19 rebels attacked Yumbo on August 11, 1984, resulting in the deaths of 12 rebels, three government policemen, and two civilians. President Betancur Cuartas and M-19 rebels agreed to a one-year ceasefire on August 24, 1984. President Betancur Cuartas and the EPL leadership agreed to a ceasefire, which went into effect on September 1, 1984. FARC established a political party, the Patriotic Union (Union Patriotica – UP), on May 28, 1985. M-19 rebels resumed military hostilities in Genova on June 28, 1985, resulting in the deaths of 19 individuals. M-19 rebels seized the Supreme Court building and took 400 hostages on November 6, 1985. Ricardo Lara Parada, leader of the ELN, was killed by government troops on November 16, 1985. Government troops and police recaptured the building on November 7, 1985, but some 115 individuals were killed in the incident. The government and FARC renewed its ceasefire agreement on March 2, 1986. Congressional elections were held on March 9, 1986, and the PLC won 98 out of 199 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 80 seats in the House of Representatives. Virgilo Barco Vargas of the PLC was elected president with 58 percent of the vote on May 25, 1986. On July 18, 1986, Amnesty International reported that 600 individuals were killed by government forces in the first six months of 1986. Virgilo Barco Vargas was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1986. The UP withdrew from the House of Representatives in November 1986 following the assassinations of 18 members of the party the previous five months. On February 16, 1987, Francisco Caraballo was named as leader of the EPL following the death of the previous leader, Jairo de Jesus Calvo.
Conflict Phase (June 16, 1987-August 29, 2016): FARC rebels resumed military hostilities against the government on June 16, 1987. Jaime Pardo Leal, leader of the UP, was assassinated on October 11, 1987. Attorney-General Carlos Mauro Hoyos was assassinated in Medellin on January 25, 1988, and he was succeeded by Alfredo Gutierrez Marquez. Municipal elections were held in March 1988. The U.S. government provided military assistance to the government beginning in 1988. FARC rebels declared a unilateral ceasefire on March 1, 1989. The government and M-19 rebel group signed a peace agreement on March 9, 1990. Congressional elections were held on March 11, 1990, and the PLC won 119 out of 199 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 62 seats in the House of Representatives. César Gaviria of the PLC was elected president with 48 percent of the vote on May 27, 1990. The government and EPL signed a ceasefire agreement on July 27, 1990. César Gaviria was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1990. Jacobo Arenas, founder of FARC, died of natural causes on August 10, 1990. On August 27, 1990, President César Gaviria signed a presidential decree calling for the election of a National Constituent Assembly. FARC and ELN rebels attacked military bases in northern Colombia on November 10, 1990, resulting in the deaths of some 25 individuals. The OAS/IACHR sent a three-member fact-finding mission to investigate human rights conditions in Colombia on December 3-7, 1990. Elections for the Constituent Assembly of Colombia (Asamblea Nacional Constituyente de Colombia) were held on December 9, 1990, and the PLC won 25 out of 70 seats. Government troops captured the FARC headquarters in Casa Verde on December 9, 1990, resulting in the deaths of some 60 rebels and 20 government soldiers. The ELN and FARC agreed to peace talks in February 1991. The Constituent Assembly of Colombia convened on February 5, 1991. The EPL formally agreed to end its rebellion against the government on March 1, 1991. FARC rebels killed five government policemen in El Retorno on March 7, 1991. The Constituent Assembly of Colombia proclaimed a new constitution on July 4, 1991. President César Gaviria lifted the state of siege on July 7, 1991. Congressional elections were held on October 27, 1991, and the PLC won 87 out of 161 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 27 seats in the House of Representatives. The OAS/IACHR sent a three-member fact-finding mission and five staff personnel to investigate human rights conditions in Colombia on May 4-8, 1992. The government declared a state of emergency on July 10, 1992. The government lifted the state of emergency on July 16, 1992. FARC and ELN rebels resumed military hostilities on November 5, 1992. FARC rebels killed 26 government policemen in southern Colombia on November 7, 1992. The government declared a 90-day state of emergency from November 8, 1992 to February 6, 1993. The M-19 Democratic Alliance withdrew from the government of President César Gaviria on November 24, 1992. The government declared a 90-day state of emergency from February 6, 1993 to May 7, 1993. Congressional elections were held on March 13, 1994, and the PLC won 88 out of 163 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 40 seats in the House of Representatives. The government declared a state of emergency from May 1, 1994 to July 10, 1994. Ernesto Samper Pizano of the PLC was elected president with 50 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections on June 19, 1994. The OAS sent six observers led by Rubén Miguel Perina of Argentina to monitor the presidential election from June 14 to June 22, 1994. Ernesto Samper Pizano was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1994. President Ernesto Samper Pizano declared a state of internal disturbance on August 16, 1995, but the Constitutional Court ruled the declaration as invalid on October 18, 1995. The government declared a 90-day state of internal disturbance from November 2, 1995 to January 31, 1996. The government declared a 90-day state of internal disturbance from January 31, 1996 to April 30, 1996. The government declared a state of internal disturbance on April 30, 1996. The government lifted the state of internal disturbance on July 25, 1996. FARC rebels killed 54 government soldiers in an attack on a military base in Las Delicias on August 30, 1996. Municipal elections were held on October 26, 1997. The OAS Council sent 36 observers to monitor the municipal elections from October 18 to October 28, 1997. Congressional elections were held on March 8, 1998, and the PLC won 84 out of 161 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 28 seats in the House of Representatives. Andrés Pastrana of the Great Alliance for Change (Gran Alianza por el Cambio – GAC) was elected president with 52 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on June 21, 1998. ELN rebels attacked an oil pipeline near Machuca on October 18, 1998, resulting in the deaths of some 50 civilians. Amnesty International condemned ELN for the killings on October 22, 1998. Some 300,000 individuals were displaced in 1998. Some 30,000 Colombian refugees were in Ecuador in December 1998. On June 20, 1999, the government and FARC agreed to resume peace negotiations. FARC rebels conducted a military offensive beginning on July 8, 1999, and some 40 government troops and 38 rebels were killed near Bogotá on July 8, 1999. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed in Hato Corozal and Doncello on July 9-10, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 57 rebels. FARC rebels attacked a police station in Antioquia province on July 31-August 3, 1999, resulting in the deaths of nine police officers and eight civilians. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appealed for peaceful negotiations on August 2, 1999. Members of the right-wing paramilitary United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia – AUC) killed 36 civilians in northeastern Colombia on August 21-22, 1999. On August 22, 1999, the UN Security Council condemned the Colombian government for not taking “the measures and actions necessary to guarantee the life and safety” of the inhabitants of northeastern Colombia. Government troops killed 10 AUC members on August 29, 1999. The ICRC provided emergency humanitarian assistance to some 170,000 internally displaced individuals in 1999. Government troops killed 24 FARC rebels on September 1, 1999. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Jan Egeland of Norway as UN Special Advisor for Colombia and head of the UN good offices mission in Colombia on December 1, 1999. FARC rebels killed eight policemen and a local government official in San Luis on December 11, 1999. FARC rebels attacked a naval base in Jurado on December 12, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 27 military personnel and 42 rebels. FARC rebels killed three policemen in Cubara on December 13, 1999. Government aircraft attacked FARC rebels near El Hobo in Huila province on December 15, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 66 rebels. Government troops and ELN rebels clashed on December 26-28, 1999, resulting in the deaths of some 30 rebels and one government soldier. The ICRC suspended its humanitarian activities on January 4, 2000 (ICRC had some 280 personnel in Colombia). Hugo Carvajal, leader of the EPL, was killed by government troops on January 13, 2000. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed near Guayabetal on January 15, 2000, resulting in the deaths of eleven rebels and three government troops. The ICRC resumed humanitarian assistance on January 20, 2000. FARC rebels attacked Vigia del Fuerte and Bojaya on March 25-26, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 24 government policemen and six civilians. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed in Boyaca province on April 4, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 17 rebels. The European Union (EU) appealed to EPL and FARC rebels to end acts of violence and condemned the groups for human rights violations. FARC rebels attacked Algeciras on June 26-27, 2000, resulting in the deaths of two government policemen. FARC rebels killed eleven government policemen in Nariño province on July 24, 2000, and FARC rebels killed two government soldiers in Magdalena province on July 24, 2000. FARC rebels killed 13 government policemen and four civilians in Arboleda in Caldas province on July 29-30, 2000. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed in Antioquia province on September 14-16, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 19 government soldiers and seven rebels. Amnesty International condemned the ELN on October 27, 2000. The Vatican City appealed for a cessation of military hostilities on January 24, 2001. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appealed for negotiations on February 1, 2001. ELN and FARC rebels killed nine individuals in the provinces of Antioquia and Guajira on October 21, 2001. FARC rebels killed two government policemen and eight government soldiers in Cauca province on December 31, 2001-January 1, 2002. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed James LeMoyne as UN Special Advisor for Colombia and head of the UN good offices mission in Colombia on November 21, 2002. President Andrés Pastrana ended negotiations with FARC rebels in February 2002. Congressional elections were held on March 10, 2002, and the PLC won 54 out of 166 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 21 seats in the House of Representatives. Álvaro Uribe of Colombia First (Primero Colombia – PC) was elected president with 54 percent of the vote in the first round of presidential elections held on May 26, 2002. The OAS sent 50 observers from 18 countries headed by Santiago Murray of Argentina to monitor the elections from March 8 to May 27, 2002. President Andrés Pastrana ended negotiations with ELN rebels on May 31, 2002. Six individuals were killed in political violence in Cartagena on July 18, 2002. FARC rebels killed two government policemen near the village of San Juan de Rioseco on July 24, 2002. Álvaro Uribe was inaugurated as president on August 7, 2002. Nineteen individuals were killed in political violence in Bogotá on August 7, 2002. Government troops killed 20 right-wing paramilitary soldiers near Segovia on August 9-10, 2002. President Álvaro Uribe declared a 90-day state of internal disturbance from August 11, 2002 to November 9, 2002. FARC rebels killed three individuals near Campoalegre on October 19, 2002. Government troops and ELN rebels clashed near the village of Cerritos on November 5, 2002, resulting in the deaths of 11 rebels. The government declared a 90-day state of internal disturbance from November 9, 2002 to February 5, 2003. Carlos Castaño and Salvatore Mancuso, leaders of the AUC, announced a unilateral ceasefire beginning on December 1, 2002. FARC rebels killed six policemen and one civilian north of Bogotá on January 20, 2003. The government extended the state of internal disturbance on February 5, 2003. FARC was blamed for a suicide car bombing in Bogotá on February 7, 2003, resulting in the deaths of 36 individuals. On February 13, 2003, the UN Security Council condemned the suicide car bombing. On April 30, 2003, the government lifted the state of internal disturbance after the Constitutional Court ruled that the state of internal disturbance had been illegally extended. FARC rebels ambushed government troops in Bolivar province on June 24, 2003, resulting in the deaths of eleven government soldiers and three rebels. Government and AUC representatives signed the Santa Fe de Ralito Agreement on July 15, 2003, which provided for the disarmament and demobilization of AUC paramilitary groups. Government troops killed sixteen FARC rebels in Boyaca province and six right-wing militiamen in Santander province on September 6, 2003. Government troops clashed with FARC rebels in northeast Colombia on September 7, 2003, resulting in the deaths of seven government soldiers and eight rebels. Ten individuals were killed in a bombing in Florencia on September 28, 2003. On February 6, 2004, the OAS Permanent Council established the OAS Mission to Support the Peace Process in Colombia (OAS/MAPP) to verify the disarmament and demobilization of AUC paramilitary groups. OAS/MAPP consisted of some 30 international personnel and 61 local staff headed by Sergio Caramagna from Argentina. FARC rebels killed 34 peasants in the village of Rio Chiquita on June 15, 2004. ELN rebels kidnapped Bishop Misael Vacca Ramirez of Yopal on July 24, 2004. Amnesty International and Pope John Paul II condemned the kidnapping of Bishop Misael Vacca Ramirez, who was released by ELN rebels on July 27, 2004. Two government police officers were killed in a bombing in Bogotá on August 27, 2004. Ten individuals were killed by gunmen in the town of Candelaria on October 4, 2004. UN Special Advisor James LeMoyne of the U.S. suspended his good offices mission in Colombia on January 24, 2005. FARC rebels killed some 23 government soldiers in Iscuande on February 1-2, 2005. FARC rebels killed eight government soldiers and one civilian in Putumayo province on February 3, 2005. FARC rebels killed some 20 government soldiers in northwestern Colombia on February 9, 2005. FARC rebels killed four government police officers and six government officials in the town of Puerto Rico in Caqueta province on May 25, 2005. FARC rebels attacked government troops in Putumayo province on June 25, 2005, resulting in the deaths of some 25 government soldiers. FARC rebels attacked government policemen in the village of Sipi in Choco province on October 2, 2005, resulting in the deaths of five government policemen. The OAS provided landmine assistance (two supervisors) to the government beginning on November 8, 2005. The Cuban government facilitated negotiations between representatives of the government and ELN in Havana on December 17-22, 2005 and April 25-28, 2006. FARC rebels killed 28 government soldiers near the town of Vista Hermosa in Meta province on December 28, 2005. FARC rebels killed seven policemen at Sierra Macarena National Park south of Bogotá on February 7, 2006. FARC rebels killed eight civilians near Puerto Rica in Caqueta province on February 26, 2006. FARC rebels killed seven civilians in the village of Rivera in Caqueta province on February 27, 2006. Congressional elections were held on March 12, 2006, and the PLC won 35 out of 162 seats in the House of Representatives. The PCC won 29 seats in the House of Representatives. FARC and EPL rebels killed 17 government soldiers near the town of Hacari in Norte de Santander province on April 22, 2006. President Álvaro Uribe was re-elected with 62 percent of the vote on May 28, 2006. The OAS sent 35 observers led by Santiago Murray of Argentina to monitor the presidential and congressional elections. Six government soldier officers we re killed in a FARC attack in southwestern Colombia on July 4, 2006. Fifteen government soldiers were killed in a FARC ambush in northeastern Colombia on August 1, 2006. Four government policemen and one civilian were killed in a bombing in Cali on August 4, 2006. FARC rebels killed 17 government soldiers in Norte de Santander province on December 1, 2006. Government soldiers killed eleven FARC rebels in the Meta province on March 5, 2007. Four individuals were killed in a bombing in Buenaventura on March 16, 2007. Nine government policemen were killed by FARC rebels near Landazuri on May 9, 2007. FARC rebels killed ten government soldiers in Valle de Cauca province on May 10, 2007. Regional elections were held on October 28, 2007. Some 70 individuals, including 22 candidates, were killed in election-related violence. Pedro Antonio Marin (Manuel Marulanda Velez), FARC commander and founder, died of natural causes on March 26, 2008. He was replaced as FARC commander by Guillermo Leon Saenz Vargas (Alfonso Cano). The government declared a state of internal disturbance beginning on October 9, 2008. FARC rebels killed four individuals during an attack on a police station in Nariño province on January 13, 2009. Six individuals, including three policemen and three civilians, were killed in a FARC car bombing in the town of Convencion in February 12, 2009. The Constitutional Court invalidated the government’s state of internal disturbance on February 12, 2009. Eight government troops were killed during clashes with FARC rebels near the Venezuelan border on April 29, 2009. FARC rebels killed seven government soldiers in Samaniego District on May 9-10, 2009. FARC rebels killed seven policemen in an ambush in Cauca province on June 22, 2009. Government military forces killed some 25 rebels in Cauca province on June 22, 2009. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed in the Cauca province on November 10, 2009, resulting in the deaths of nine government soldiers and 30 rebels. Government military forces killed some 18 FARC rebels in Meta province on January 1, 2010. On February 26, 2010, a referendum proposal that would have allowed the president to run for a third term was rejected by the Constitutional Court of Colombia in a 7 to 2 ruling. Congressional elections were held on March 14, 2010, and the Social Party of National Unity (Partido Social de Unidad Nacional – PSUN) won 48 out of 162 seats in the House of Representatives. Both the PCC and PLC won 36 seats in the House of Representatives. Presidential elections were held on May 30 and June 20, 2010, and Juan Manuel Santos of the PSUN was elected president with 69 percent of the vote in the second round of the presidential elections on June 20, 2010. The OAS sent 85 observers headed by Enrique Correa of Chile to monitor the congressional and presidential elections. Government military forces killed 13 FARC rebels in Bolivar province on July 7, 2010. FARC rebels killed three policemen, two government soldiers, and two civilians in the southern part of the country on July 10, 2010. Government troops killed 12 FARC rebels in the Tolima mountains on July 11, 2010. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed in Arauca province on July 11, 2010, resulting in the deaths of ten government soldiers. Juan Manuel Santos was inaugurated as president on August 7, 2010. FARC rebels killed 14 policemen in Caqueta province on September 1, 2010. Government troops killed 11 ELN rebels in Arauca province on September 2, 2010. FARC rebels killed 14 policemen in Caqueta province on September 8, 2010. FARC rebels killed eight policemen in the town of San Miguel on September 10, 2010. Government troops killed 22 FARC rebels near the town of San Miguel on September 19, 2010. Government military forces killed 13 FARC rebels near the Ecuador border on November 15, 2010. FARC rebels killed five policemen in the provinces of Cauca and Choco on April 27, 2011. FARC rebels killed three individuals during attacks in Cauca province on July 9, 2011. Government troops killed five ELN rebels near the town of Fortul on October 8, 2011. FARC rebels killed ten government soldiers in an ambush near Tumaco in Nariño province on October 21, 2011. Alfonso Cano, commander of FARC rebels, was killed by government military forces in Cauca province on November 4, 2011. Two civilians were killed during a FARC attack on a police station in the town of Orito on December 31, 2011. FARC rebels killed eleven individuals during an attack on a police station in Tumaco on February 1, 2012. FARC rebels killed six individuals during an attack on the police station in the town of Villa Rica on February 2, 2012. Representatives of the government and FARC held exploratory negotiations facilitated by the governments of Cuba, Norway, and Venezuela in Havana, Cuba from February 23 to August 26, 2012. FARC rebels killed two government soldiers and one civilian near the town of Tame on March 3, 2012. FARC rebels ambushed government troops in Arauca province near the Venezuelan border on March 17, 2012, resulting in the deaths of eleven soldiers. Government troops killed some 35 FARC rebels in Meta province on March 25, 2012. FARC rebels killed three civilians in the town of Puerto Rico in Caqueta province on April 27, 2012. Two individuals were killed in a FARC bombing in Bogotá on May 15, 2012. Representatives of the government and FARC began formal negotiations in Oslo, Norway on October 18, 2012. FARC rebels killed five government soldiers in the southern Putumayo region on October 18, 2012. The first of several rounds of negotiations between representatives of the government and FARC was launched in Havana, Cuba on November 15, 2012. FARC agreed to a unilateral ceasefire from November 20, 2012 to January 20, 2013. On December 2, 2012, government airstrikes against FARC camps in Nariño province resulted in the deaths of at least 20 rebels. On December 31, 2012, government airstrikes against a FARC rebel camp in Antioquia province resulted in the deaths of 13 rebels. On January 30, 2013, FARC rebels killed four government soldiers in Nariño province and one government soldier in Putumayo province. FARC rebels killed one government officer and one civilian in Guaviare province on February 12, 2013. Government troops clashed with FARC rebels in Caqueta province on February 13, 2013, resulting in the deaths of seven government soldiers and several rebels. FARC rebels ambushed government troops who were guarding an oil pipeline in the Arauca region in eastern Colombia on July 20, 2013, resulting in the deaths of 15 soldiers and six rebels. Government troops clashed with FARC rebels in the town of El Doncello in Caqueta province on July 20, 2013, resulting in the deaths of four government soldiers and six rebels. The same day, FARC rebels killed 15 government soldiers protecting an oil pipeline under construction in Arauca province. Government troops killed two FARC rebels during a military operation in Cauca province on July 22, 2013. Roberto Menendez of Argentina was appointed as Chief of the OAS/MAPP on August 2, 2013. Government police clashed with farmers and others protesting against government agriculture and trade policies in Bogotá and other cities on August 19-29, 2013, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. On December 7, 2013, FARC rebels attacked a government military and police base in Cauca province, resulting in the deaths of five soldiers, one police officers, and two civilians. On January 13, 2014, representatives of the government and FARC resumed peace negotiations in Havana, Cuba. FARC rebels bombed a police station in the town of Pradera on January 16, 2014, resulting in the death of one individual. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed in the Tolima area on January 21, 2014, resulting in the deaths of seven rebels. Congressional elections were held on March 9, 2014, and the PLC won 39 out of 166 seats in the House of Representatives. The PSUN won 38 seats in the House of Representatives. Presidential elections were held on May 25, 2014 and June 15, 2014. President Juan Manuel Santos was re-elected with 51 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on June 15, 2014. The OAS sent 64 observers led by former president José María Figueres of Costa Rica to monitor the presidential and congressional elections. Juan Manuel Santos was inaugurated to a second term as president on August 7, 2014. FARC rebels captured General Ruben Dario Alzate and two other individuals in Choco Department in northwest Colombia on November 16, 2014. General Ruben Dario Alzate and two other individuals were freed by FARC on November 30, 2014. Government troops killed nine FARC rebels during clashes in Meta province on December 15, 2014. On December 17, 2015, the FARC rebel group declared a unilateral ceasefire to begin in three days. On December 19, 2014, FARC rebels ambushed and killed five government soldiers in Cauca province. The same day, ELN rebels attacked and killed three government police officers in Norte de Santander province. U.S. President Barack Obama appointed Bernard Aronson as Special Envoy to Colombia on February 20, 2015. Government troops clashed with FARC rebels near La Esperanza in Cauca province on April 14, 2015, resulting in the deaths of ten government soldiers and one rebel. On May 13, 2015, the Ecuadorian government hosted meetings in Quito between representatives of the government and ELN rebel group. On May 21, 2015, government airstrikes against a FARC rebel camp in Antioquia province resulted in the deaths of 26 rebels. In response, the FARC rebel group suspended its unilateral ceasefire on May 22, 2015. On June 11, 2015, FARC rebels killed three government police officers in southwestern Colombia. On June 12, 2015, FARC rebels killed two government police officers in Nariño province. Provincial and local elections were held on October 25, 2015. On October 26, 2015, ELN rebels killed 11 government soldiers and one government policeman in Boyaca province. On January 25, 2016, the UN Security Council authorized the established of a political mission in Colombia to monitor/verify the disarmament of FARC rebels and monitor/verify the cessation of hostilities. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon appointed Jean Arnault of France as UN Special Representative on March 9, 2016. Representatives of the government and FARC signed a ceasefire agreement in Havana, Cuba on June 23, 2016. The first group of 23 UN observers led by Major General Javier Antonio Perez Aquino of Argentina arrived in Bogotá on June 28, 2016. The ceasefire agreement went into effect on August 29, 2016. Some 160,000 individuals were killed, and nearly seven million individuals were internally displaced during the conflict between 1987 and 2016.
Post-Conflict Phase (August 30, 2016-present): On September 13, 2016, the UN Security Council approved UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon’s recommendations regarding the size, operation, and mandate of the UN Mission in Colombia (UNMIC). President Juan Manual Santos and FARC leader Rodrigo Londono signed a peace agreement in Cartagena on September 26, 2016. The UNMIC, which consisted of 450 unarmed observers from 19 countries led by Major General Javier Antonio Perez Aquino of Argentina, began its monitoring and verification functions on September 27, 2016. On September 27, 2016, the OAS secretary-general and Colombian government signed a protocol extending the mandate of the OAS/MAPP until December 31, 2018. On September 28, 2016, the ELN rebel group indicated that it was ready to begin formal peace negotiations with the government. The peace agreement was narrowly rejected by 50.2 percent of the vote in a referendum held on October 2, 2016. Two members of the FARC were killed by government security forces in Santa Rosa del Sur in Bolivar department on November 13, 2016. President Juan Manuel Santos and FARC leader Rodrigo Londono signed a revised peace agreement, Final Agreement for Ending the Conflict and Building a Stable and Lasting Peace, in Bogotá on November 24, 2016. The revised peace agreement was approved by both chambers of the Colombian Congress on November 30, 2016. Opposition members in the House of Representatives and Senate boycotted the congressional votes. On December 28, 2016, the Colombian Congress approved an amnesty law for former FARC rebels and members of the government military forces who committed crimes, not including war crimes or serious human rights violations, during the civil war. Bernard Aronson stepped down as U.S. Special Envoy to Colombia on January 20, 2017. On February 7, 2017, representatives of the government and ELN rebel group began peace negotiations near Quito, Ecuador. Three individuals died in a bomb explosion at a shopping center in Bogotá on June 17, 2017. The UNMIC concluded the disarmament process in the 26 FARC transition camps on August 15, 2017. More than 8,000 weapons and 1.3 million cartridges were removed from the camps. Additional weapons and ammunition, including anti-personnel mines, homemade explosives, and gunpowder, were destroyed by UN personnel. On September 4, 2017, representatives of the government and ELN rebel group agreed on a temporary cessation of military hostilities. The UNMIC was replaced by the UN Verification Mission in Colombia (UNVMIC) on September 26, 2017. The UNVMIC, which was mandated to verify the implementation of sections 3.2 and 3.4 of the 2016 peace agreement between the government and FARC, consisted of 120 unarmed civilian observers and 162 international staff headed by UN Special Representative Jean Arnault of France. The temporary ceasefire agreement between the government and ELN rebel group went into effect on October 1, 2017. ELN rebels clashed with dissidents of the demobilized FARC rebel group in Nariño province on November 27, 2017, resulting in the deaths of 13 individuals. The ceasefire between the government and ELN rebel groups ended on January 10, 2018. On January 21, 2018, gunmen seven killed individuals in a bar in Yarumal in Antioquia province. On January 27, 2018, ELN rebels bombed a government police station in Barranquilla, resulting in the deaths of at least five police officers. On January 28, 2018, ELN rebels attacked government police stations in the provinces of Bolivar and Atlántico, resulting in the deaths of two police officers. On February 27, 2018, ELN rebels attacked government troops between the towns of Tibu and Salazar de las Palmas in Norte de Santander province, resulting in the deaths of at least five government soldiers. Congressional elections were held on March 11, 2018, and the PLC won 35 out of 166 seats in the House of Representatives. The Democratic Centre (Centro Democrático – CD) won 32 seats in the House of Representatives. On April 18, 2018, the Ecuadorian government withdrew as a guarantor of the peace negotiations between the Colombian government and ELN rebel group. On May 5, 2018, representatives of the government and ELN rebel group decided to move peace negotiations to Havana, Cuba. Iván Duque of the CD was elected president with 54 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on June 17, 2018. The OAS sent 79 observers led by former vice president Kevin Casas-Zamora of Costa Rica to monitor the presidential and congressional elections beginning on March 5, 2018. Iván Duque was inaugurated as president on August 7, 2018. On September 8, 2018, Victor David Segura, the leader of a dissident group of FARC rebels, was killed by government security forces near Tumaco in Nariño province. On September 20, 2018, three geologists employed by Continental Gold were killed by dissident members of the demobilized FARC in the town of Ochali in Antioquia province. From October 11 to December 14, 2018, students waged a national university strike to protest reductions in government funding for higher education. On December 10, 2018, Carlos Ruiz Massieu of Mexico was appointed by UN Secretary-General António Guterres as UN Special Representative and head of the UNVMIC. On December 17, 2018, the ELN called a 12-day unilateral ceasefire starting on December 23, 2018. On December 21, 2018, government security forces killed Walter Patricio Arizala (“Guacho”) , commander of a faction of the demobilized FARC, in a military operation near the border with Ecuador. The ELN took responsibility for a suicide truck bombing against the General Santander National Police Academy in Bogotá on January 17, 2019, resulting in the deaths of 22 individuals. Nine dissident members of the demobilized FARC were killed by government security forces in southern Colombia on August 30, 2019. On September 2, 2019, a mayoral candidate and five other individuals were killed in an attack by dissident members of the demobilized FARC in Cauca province. Provincial and local elections were held on October 27, 2019. Three individuals were killed during anti-government protests in Buenaventura and Candelaria in Valle del Cauca province on November 21, 2019. On November 22, 2019, three government policemen were killed in a bombing at a police station in the town of Santander de Quilichao in Cauca province. On November 23, 2019, a student was killed during anti-government protests in Bogotá. On March 10, 2020, Human Rights Watch, a U.S.-based human rights NGO, reported that some government policemen used “excessive force against protesters participating in marches late last year, including beatings and detentions.” On March 30, 2020, the ELN declared a unilateral ceasefire for one month to help curb the spread of Covid-19 beginning on April 1, 2020. On May 14, 2020, four ELN rebels were killed by government security forces during a joint operation in Bolivar province. On July 2, 2020, government police capture eight ELN rebels who were accused of participating in the January 2019 car bombing of a military academy in Bogotá. At least nine government soldiers were killed when their UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter accidentally crashed during a military operation against dissident members of the demobilized FARC in Guaviare province on July 21, 2020. On August 4, 2020, the Supreme Court of Colombia placed former president Álvaro Uribe under house arrest following charges of bribery and witness tampering. At least 17 individuals were killed in violence involving drug traffickers, criminal groups, and dissidents of the demobilized FARC in the provinces of Nariño, Cauca, and Arauca on August 21-22, 2020. On September 9-21, 2020, thirteen individuals were killed in nationwide protests over the killing of Javier Humberto Ordóñez on September 9, 2020 while in police custody in Bogotá. On September 22, 2020, the Supreme Court of Colombia condemned the government of President Iván Duque for violently suppressing peaceful anti-government protests. On October 21, 2020, thousands of workers, teachers, students, and indigenous people peacefully marched in Bogotá, protesting the economic and social policies of President Iván Duque, the killing of human rights activists, and police violence. On November 1, 2020, hundreds of former members of the demobilized FARC peacefully marched in Bogotá, demanding more security from the government, implementation of the 2016 peace agreement, and an end to killings of former FARC members. More than 235 former members of FARC have been killed since the signing of the 2016 peace agreement. Workers and students peacefully protested against the economic and social polices of President Iván Duque in Bogotá, Medellin, Cali, Barranquilla, and Bucaramanga on November 19, 2020. On January 28, 2021, the Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP) tribunal accused eight former commanders of the demobilized FARC of war crimes and crimes against humanity during the civil war. On February 18, 2021, six former commanders of the demobilized FARC – Rodrigo Londono (Timochenko), Jaime Alberto Parra, Pablo Catatumbo, Pastor Alape, Julian Gallo and Rodrigo Grande – accepted accusations by the Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP) tribunal that they had committed war crimes and crimes against humanity during the civil war. On March 27, 2021, the government accused members of the the Dagoberto Ramos Mobile Column, a dissident group of the demobilized FARC, of detonating a car bomb in the town of Corinto the previous day, resulting in injuries to 43 individuals. Government security forces clashed with anti-government protesters in Bogotá, Cali, Popayan, Medellin, Ibagué, and other cities beginning on April 28, 2021. Protesters demonstrated against the government’s proposed tax reforms and corruption. On May 4, 2021, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) condemned the government for its excessive use of force against anti-government protesters. On May 4, 2021, Amnesty International condemned the government for “excessive and unnecessary use of force against demonstrators”, and the EU condemned “acts of violence” and the “disproportionate use of force” by government security forces. On May 7, 2021, Amnesty International called on the government to ““investigate all allegations of human rights violations and crimes under international law in a prompt, impartial and exhaustive fashion, guaranteeing the rights and safety of victims and witnesses.” On May 11, 2021, the UN Security Council extended the UNVMIC until October 31, 2021 and expanded the mandate to include monitoring of sentences issued by the Special Jurisdiction for Peace for individuals who acknowledged responsibility for crimes committed during the civil war. On June 15, 2021, leaders of the anti-government protesters announced that they were suspending their organized marches against the government. Approximately 60 individuals were killed during the anti-government protests in May and June 2021. On June 15, 2021, a car bomb detonated at a military base in Cucuta, resulting in injuries to 36 individuals. On July 7, 2021, the OAS/IACHR issued a report condemning the government for “excessive and disproportionate” use of force in response to the anti-government protests. Government troops killed at least 23 dissident FARC rebels during military operations in the Arauca department in February 2022. Legislative elections were held on March 13, 2022. Six government soldiers were killed in a roadside bombing in Antioquia department on April 20, 2022. The first round of presidential elections was held on May 29, 2022. Gustavo Petro of Humane Colombia (Colombia Humana – CH) was elected president with nearly 51 percent of the vote in the second round on June 19, 2022. The OAS sent 87 observers from 29 countries led by former Foreign Minister Eladio Loizaga of Paraguay to monitor the legislative and presidential elections between March 4 and June 21, 2022. The EU sent 130 short-term and long-term observers from 29 countries led by Javi López of Spain to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from January 25 to July 14, 2022. Gustavo Petro was sworn in as president in Bogotá on August 8, 2022. Seven government policemen were killed in an explosives attack in San Luis in Huila department on September 3, 2022. Negotiations between government and ELN representatives started in Caracas, Venezuela on November 22, 2022. On December 6, 2022, government troops clashed with dissident FARC rebels in the Cauca region, resulting in the deaths of six government soldiers. A second round of peace negotiations between government and ELN representatives started in Mexico City on February 13, 2023. ELN rebels killed nine government soldiers during an attack on a military base in El Carmen in Norte de Santander state on March 29, 2023. A third round of peace negotiations between the government and ELN representatives started in Havana, Cuba on May 2, 2023. Representatives of the government and ELN signed a ceasefire agreement in Havana, Cuba on June 9, 2023. The ceasefire agreement between the government and ELN went into effect on August 3, 2023. Local and regional elections were held on October 29, 2023. The OAS sent 25 short-term observers from 14 countries to monitor the local and regional elections from October 20 to November 1, 2023.
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Selected Bibliography
Acuña Rodríguez, Olga Yanet. 2017. “1910 Colombian constitutional reform and the electoral system (1910-1914),” Revista Historia Y Memoria 14: 97-126.
Arciniegas, Germán. 1957. “Colombia under the New Order,” Current History 32 (no. 188): 200-204.
Mazzuca, Sebastián and James A. Robinson. 2009. “Political Conflict and Power Sharing in the Origins of Modern Colombia,” Hispanic American Historical Review 89 (2): 285-321.
Posada-Carbó, Eduardo. 1997. “Limits of Power: Elections Under the Conservative Hegemony in Colombia, 1886-1930,” Hispanic American Historical Review 77 (2): 245-279.