3. Ethiopia (1942-present)

Pre-Crisis Phase (January 31, 1942-December 12, 1960): Ethiopia was liberated from Italian control by British troops, and the British government recognized the independence of Ethiopia on January 31, 1942.  Tigray rebels led by Haile Mariam Redda, known as the Woyane, launched an insurgency against the government of Emperor Haile Selassie in May 1943.  The British Military Mission in Ethiopia (BMME), which was established as a result of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement of 1942, provided military assistance in support of the Ethiopian government.  The U.S and Ethiopian governments signed a mutual assistance agreement on August 9, 1943.  Ethiopian military forces, along with British military forces, suppressed the Woyane rebellion in October 1943, resulting in the deaths of thousands of individuals.  The U.S. government provided some $9 million in economic assistance to the government of Emperor Haile Selassie between April 2, 1948 and March 31, 1955.  Government troops and peasants clashed in Gojjam region on August 2, 1950. The United Nations (UN) General Assembly approved the federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea on December 2, 1950. Government troops suppressed a rebellion, and eight individuals were sentenced to death for their involvement in the rebellion on July 26, 1951.  Ethiopia requested military assistance from the U.S. government in October 1951.  Elections to the Representative Assembly were held in Eritrea on March 25-26, 1952. The Representative Assembly adopted a constitution for Eritrea on July 10, 1952, and Emperor Haile Selassie ratified the constitution on August 11, 1952.  Tedla Bairu was elected chief executive of Eritrea on August 28, 1952. Emperor Haile Selassie signed the Eritrean-Ethiopian Federation Act on September 11, 1952, and Eritrea joined the federation with Ethiopia on September 15, 1952.  The U.S. government agreed to provide military assistance (military training for some 4,000 Ethiopian military personnel in the U.S. and some 300 U.S. military advisors in Ethiopia) to the government of Emperor Haile Selassie on May 22, 1953.  The U.S. government provided military assistance to the Ethiopian government from 1953 to 1977, and some 4,000 U.S. military personnel were stationed at the Kagnew communications station in Asmara.  Emperor Haile Selassie issued a revised constitution on November 4, 1955, which prohibited political parties and established a Council of Ministers. The U.S. government provided some $12.5 million in economic assistance to the Ethiopian government between July 1, 1955 and June 30, 1957.  Legislative elections were held between January 9 and March 9, 1957, and independents won 210 out of 210 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The Chamber of Deputies convened in Addis Ababa on November 3, 1957.

Crisis Phase (December 13, 1960-March 31, 1961): Government troops commanded by General Merid Mengesha suppressed a military rebellion led by Brigadier General Mengestu Newaye in Addis Ababa on December 13-16, 1960, resulting in the deaths of some 500 individuals.  Legislative elections were held on January 9, 1961, and independents won 250 out of 250 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. On March 31, 1961, General Newaye was executed for his involvement in the December 1960 rebellion. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

Post-Crisis Phase (April 1, 1961-September 11, 1974):  Emperor Haile Selassie appointed Aklilou Habte Wold as prime minister on April 17, 1961.  The Chamber of Deputies voted to abolish the federation with Eritrea on November 14, 1962, and Ethiopia annexed Eritrea on November 16, 1962.  Legislative elections were held on January 9, 1965, and independents won 250 out of 250 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  Government military forces suppressed armed peasant resistance in Mota and Bichena districts in Gojjam region in July and August 1968, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of individuals.  On August 2, 1968, two government military officers were sentenced to death for subversion. Government police and student demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on April 3-24, 1969, resulting in the deaths of two students. Legislative elections were held in 1969, and independents won 250 out of 250 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  Government police uncovered a plot against the government led by General Takele Woldehawariat on November 27, 1969.  Government police and student demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on December 29, 1969, resulting in the deaths of three students.  The Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) was established in opposition to the government on April 2, 1972.  Legislative elections were held between June 23 and July 7, 1973, and independents won 250 out of 250 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  Government police and demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on February 20-25, 1974, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. Prime Minister Aklilu Habte Wolde resigned on February 27, 1974, and Emperor Haile Selassie appointed Endalakatchew Makonnen as prime minister on February 28, 1974.  Government police and students clashed in Addis Ababa on March 1-11, 1974, resulting in the death of one student.  Prime Minister Endalkatchew Makonnen resigned on July 22, 1974, and Emperor Haile Selassie appointed Mikhail Imru as prime minister on July 23, 1974.

Crisis Phase (September 12, 1974-September 30, 1976):  Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed in a military coup on September 12, 1974, and the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) headed by General Aman Michael Andom took control of the government on September 13, 1974.  The Tigray National Organization (TNO) was established in Addis Ababa on September 14, 1974.  President Omar Bongo of Gabon condemned the military coup on September 15, 1974.  Government troops arrested 21 individuals, including several former government officials, on October 10, 1974. General Aman was overthrown on November 22, 1974.  General Aman, Prince Eskinder Desta, and 58 former government officials and military officers were executed in Addis Ababa on November 23, 1974.  The Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), which consisted of Oromo Muslims from eastern Ethiopia and mostly Oromo Christians from western Ethiopia, was established in opposition to the military government in 1974.  Members of the TNO, known as the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF), launched a rebellion against the military government on February 18, 1975.  The government of Yugoslavia provided military assistance (supplies) to the military government beginning on April 10, 1975.  Government troops suppressed a rebellion led by Lt. Colonel Negussie Haile and Captain Debessu Beyene on April 20-21, 1975, resulting in the arrests of 20 individuals.  Twenty individuals were executed by the military government on August 3, 1975, and some 200 individuals were executed by the military government between September 1974 and August 1975.  Former Emperor Haile Selassie died in prison on August 27, 1975.  Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on September 25, 1975, resulting in the deaths of seven individuals.  The military government declared a state-of-emergency in Addis Ababa on September 30, 1975.  The military government lifted the state-of-emergency in Addis Ababa on December 6, 1975.  Government troops fired on demonstrators in Addis Ababa on April 21, 1976, resulting in the death of one individual.  On July 10, 1976, Brig. General Getachew Nadew and 19 other individuals were killed by government troops following a failed coup attempt.

Conflict Phase (October 1, 1976-May 28, 1991):  The Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) launched a rebellion against the military government on October 1, 1976.  Brigadier-General Teferi Bante and six members of the PMAC were killed during a power struggle on February 3, 1977, and Lt. Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam took full control of the PMAC on February 4, 1977.  The government of South Yemen expressed support for Lt. Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam on February 7, 1977, and the Libyan government expressed support for Lt. Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam on February 8, 1977. The U.S. government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) and military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the military government in February 1977.  In April 1977, the Ethiopian government ordered the closure of U.S. military facilities in Ethiopia and the withdrawal of U.S. military advisors from Ethiopia.  Government troops killed some 2,500 individuals throughout the country beginning in April 1977.  The Cuban government deployed 50 military advisers in support of the military government in May 1977.  The government of the Soviet Union provided 60 million tons of military assistance (aircraft, tanks, artillery, and ammunition) to the military government from November 1977 to February 1978.  The Cuban government deployed some 17,000 Cuban troops, including three combat brigades, to Ethiopia beginning in November 1977.  On April 12, 1978, Amnesty International (AI) condemned the military government’s “red terror” against the citizens of Ethiopia.  In November 1978, the governments of Ethiopia and the Soviet Union signed a 20-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in which the Soviet Union agreed to provide military assistance (military training for some 1,600 Ethiopian military personnel and some 1,700 Soviet military advisers in Ethiopia) to the military government.  Berhane Meskel Reda Wolde, a leader of the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party (EPRP), was executed by the government on July 12, 1979.  The military government released 1,000 political prisoners in September 1981, and the government released 716 political prisoners on September 11, 1982.  A new constitution was proposed on June 7, 1986, and the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was established on December 12, 1986.  Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) rebels killed some 40 civilians in Gojjam region on December 27, 1986.  EPRP rebels killed 32 government soldiers on February 19, 1987. The constitution was approved in a referendum on February 1, 1987.  A national legislature (Shengo) was elected on June 14, 1987, and the Shengo convened in Addis Ababa on September 9, 1987. Colonel Mengistu was elected president without opposition by the Shengo on September 10, 1987.  Tigre People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) rebels launched a military offensive against government troops in March 1988.  In order to combat the TPLF, the military government established the Third Revolutionary Army (TRA) commanded by Major-General Mulatu Negash,on April 9, 1988.  The military government declared a state of emergency on May 14, 1988.  The military government launched an aerial bombing campaign and ground military offensive against TPLF-held areas of northern Ethiopia beginning on June 1, 1988.  Government forces attacked several towns between June 4 and August 29, 1988, including Harako, Seqota, Amdo, Samre, Dande, Abi Adi, Hausien, Enticho, Mai Kenetal, Adwa, Hagerai Selam, Netsege, Mai Mekden, Adi Nebrid, Kelish Emni, Mai Mado, and Adi Hagerai.  More than 2,175 civilians were killed in the attacks.  Government troops (TRA) launched an unsuccessful military offensive (Operation Adwa) against TPLF rebels from June 19 to August 10, 1988.  TPLF rebels captured the town of Rama from government troops on September 29, 1988, resulting in the deaths of 21 government soldiers.  Government forces bombed the town of Sheraro in northern Ethiopia on December 12, 1988, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals.  Government troops (TRA) launched a military offensive (Operation Aksum I) against TPLF rebels on December 28, 1988 and launched another military offensive (Operation Aksum II) against TPLF rebels on February 8, 1989.  Several opposition groups, including the Tigre People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) and Ethiopian Peoples Democratic Movement (EPDM), formally established the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) in January 1989.  TPLF rebels defeated the government military offensive following the Battle of Shire on February 19, 1989, resulting in the deaths of at least 10,000 government soldiers.  Some one million individuals fled as refugees to neighboring countries.  Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Major-General Merid Negusie and Major-General Amha Desta on May 16-18, 1989, resulting in the deaths of several individuals.  Defense Minister Haile Giorgis Habte-Mariam, along with the rebel military leaders, were killed during the rebellion.  The EPRDF launched a military offensive against government troops, and captured the towns of Maichew and Korem by September 8, 1989.  Government forces killed 148 individuals in the town of Chercher in Tigray region on September 9, 1989.  Government security forces killed 22 individuals in the town of Gobye in Wollo region on September 9-10, 1989.  After nearly 12 years, the Cuban government withdrew its remaining military personnel from Ethiopia on September 17, 1989.  Government forces killed 31 individuals in the town of Meqele in Tigray region on October 27-29, 1989.  The Italian government facilitated preliminary negotiations between government and TPLF representatives in Rome from November 4, 1989 to March 29, 1990.  Government forces killed 31 individuals in the town of Sheraro in Tigray region on November 21, 1989.  The Oromo People’s Democratic Organization (OPDO) was established in opposition to the government in April 1990.  EPRDF rebels launched a military offensive (Operation Teodros) against government troops in Gonder and Gojjam regions on February 23, 1991, and EPRDF rebels captured Gondar on March 8-9, 1991.  EPRDF rebels captured Mezezo in the Shoa region on March 19, 1991.  President Mengistu appointed Tesfaye Dinka as prime minister on April 26, 1991.  President Mengistu resigned as head-of-state on May 21, 1991, and Vice-President Tesfaye Gebre-Kidan assumed the presidency on May 22, 1991.  EPRDF rebels captured Adis Alem on May 21, 1991 and Debre Birhan on May 23, 1991.  U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Herman Cohen mediated negotiations between representatives of the government and EPRDF in London on May 27-28, 1991.  The federal government was overthrown by EPRDF rebels on May 28, 1991.  Some 250,000 individuals were killed, and some one million individuals were displaced during the conflict.

Post-Conflict Phase (May 29, 1991-November 2, 2020):  Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) troops and demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on May 29-30, 1991, resulting in the deaths of ten individuals. The EPRDF convened a national conference with representatives from more than 20 political movements, including the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), on July 1-5, 1991. The conference established an 87-member Council of Representatives headed by Meles Zenawi of the EPRDF.  The OLF was provided four cabinet positions in the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE).  EPRDF troops and OLF troops clashed in 1991.  The U.S. government provided $95.2 million in economic assistance to the federal government in June 1992.  The provisional government of Eritrea and the U.S. government mediated a ceasefire on April 15, 1992.  Regional assembly elections were held on June 21, 1992, but the OLF had withdrawn from the elections on June 17, 1992. The Joint International Observer Group (JIOG), which consisted of 74 observers from the U.S., 24 observers from the United Nations (UN), 18 observers from the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and 18 observers from Germany, was established to monitor the regional elections. The OLF withdrew from the TGE on June 23, 1992.  The OLF mobilized some 15,000 troops against the TGE on June 24, 1992. The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) established a mission to provide repatriation assistance to some one million Ethiopian refugees in Djibouti, Kenya, and Sudan beginning in 1993. The UNHCR assisted in the repatriation of some 30,000 Ethiopian refugees from Sudan, 32,000 from Djibouti, and 4,000 from Kenya between 1993 and December 1995.  TGE troops and OLF troops engaged in military hostilities.  Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter, representing the Carter Center (CC), offered to mediate between the TGE and opposition political groups in March 1994, but the offer was rejected by the TGE.  Elections were held on June 5, 1994, and the EPRDF won 484 out of 547 seats in the Constituent Assembly.  Several opposition political parties boycotted the elections.  On October 27, 1994, the government formally charged 73 former military government officials, including Mengistu Haile Mariam, with genocide and human rights violations.  The Constituent Assembly convened on October 28, 1994, and approved a draft constitution on December 8, 1994.  The trial of former military government officials, including Mengistu Haile Mariam, began in Addis Ababa on December 13, 1994.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 7, 1995, and the Oromo Peoples’ Democratic Organization (OPDO) won 176 out of 547 seats in the House of People’s Representatives.  The Amhara National Democratic Movement (ANDM) won 133 seats in the House of People’s Representatives.  Several opposition political parties boycotted the elections. The OAU sent 81 observers to monitor the elections. On May 12, 1995, the OAU mission reported that the elections had been free and fair.  The Council of People’s Representatives proclaimed the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on August 22, 1995, and elected Meles Zanawi of the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) as prime minister on August 23, 1995.  Oromo rebels clashed with government troops in eastern Ethiopia on August 10-19, 1999, resulting in the deaths of some 300 rebels.  Some 2,000 individuals were killed in political violence in 1999.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 16, 2000, and the Oromo Peoples’ Democratic Organization (OPDO) won 183 out of 547 seats in the House of People’s Representatives.  The Amhara National Democratic Movement (ANDM) won 143 seats in the House of People’s Representatives.  Several opposition political parties boycotted the elections.  Five individuals were killed in election-related violence.  Local and regional elections were held on March 4, 2001. Seven opposition political parties boycotted the elections.  Government police and students clashed in Addis Ababa on April 17-18, 2001, resulting in the deaths of 41 individuals.  Girma Wolde-Giorgis was elected president by the parliament on October 8, 2001.  After twenty-five years, the U.S. government resumed military assistance (military equipment, military training, and some 100 military advisers) to the Ethiopian government in 2002.  Government police clashed with demonstrators in the town of Teppi on March 11, 2002, resulting in the deaths of some 125 individuals.  Government police clashed with demonstrators in Awassa on May 24, 2002, resulting in the deaths of some 15 individuals.  OLF rebels launched a military offensive against government troops in western Ethiopia beginning in May 2002.  Government troops suppressed the Oromo military offensive on July 4, 2002, resulting in the deaths of some 200 government soldiers and rebels.  The United Ethiopia Democratic Forces (UEDF) began operations in Ethiopia on September 15, 2003.  Several hundred individuals were killed and some 10,000 individuals were displaced in ethnic violence in the Gambella region in western Ethiopia in December 2003 and January 2004.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 15, 2005, and the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), including the Oromo Peoples’ Democratic Organization (OPDO) and the Amhara National Democratic Movement (ANDM), won 327 out of 546 seats in the House of People’s Representatives.  The Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD) won 109 seats, and the United Ethiopian Democratic Forces (UEDF) won 52 seats in the House of People’s Representatives.  The European Union (EU) sent ten election experts, 50 long-term observers, and 100 short-term observers headed by Ana Gomes of Portugal to monitor the parliamentary elections from March 15 to September 15, 2005.  The African Union (AU) sent 30 observers headed by Amani Waldi Kabourou of Tanzania to monitor the parliamentary elections.  The Carter Center (CC) sent 50 observers to monitor the parliamentary elections from March 19 to May 16, 2005.  The CUD claimed election fraud on June 1, 2005.  Government police clashed with demonstrators in Addis Ababa on June 8, 2005, resulting in the deaths of 26 protesters.  On June 13, 2005, the U.S. government condemned the government for the use of “excessive force” against the demonstrators.  On June 15, 2005, the British government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the Ethiopian government.  Government police clashed with demonstrators in Addis Ababa on November 1-2, 2005.  Some 193 civilians and six government police were killed in political violence in 2005.   At least four individuals were killed in a series of explosions in Addis Ababa on May 12, 2006.  On May 26, 2006, the British government agreed to lifted economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the Ethiopian government.  More than 100 individuals were killed and some 90,000 individuals were displaced in ethnic violence in southern Ethiopia in May and June 2006.  At least 14 individuals were killed in an ambush of a passenger bus near the village of Bonga in western Ethiopia on June 12, 2006.  Brigadier-General Kemal Geltu defected to the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) in August 2006.  Brigadier-General Hailu Gonfa and Colonel Gemechu Ayana defected to the OLF in September 2006.  At least 15 individuals were killed in Christian-Muslim violence near the town of Jimma in the state of Oromia in September and October 2006.  On December 12, 2006, former Ethiopian leader Mengistu Haile Mariam, who was living in exile in Zimbabwe, was found guilty of genocide following a 12-year trial.  Mengistu Haile Mariam was sentenced to life-imprisonment on January 11, 2007.  On June 11, 2007, thirty leaders of the opposition Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD), including five individuals who were tried in absentia, were convicted of crimes connected to the mass protests that followed the 2005 parliamentary elections.  All thirty of the convicted CUD leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment on July 16, 2007.  The CUD leaders were pardoned and freed from prison on July 20, 2007.  President Girma Wolde-Giorgis was re-elected to a second six-year term by the parliament on October 9, 2007. The OLF was blamed for a bomb explosion in Addis Ababa on May 20, 2008, resulting in the deaths of three individuals.  On May 26, 2008, former Ethiopian leader Mengistu Haile Mariam was sentenced to death by the Ethiopian Supreme Court, overturning the previous sentence of life imprisonment.  On December 30, 2008, opposition leader Birtukan Medeksa was sentenced to life imprisonment after her previous pardon was revoked by the government.  Some 300 individuals were killed and some 100,000 individuals were displaced as a result of ethnic violence (Borana and Gheri) near the town of Moyale on February 5, 2009.  Two individuals were killed by government police during violence between Christians and Muslims in the town of Dessie on July 1, 2009.  On November 19, 2009, twenty-six individuals were convicted of plotting a coup and assassinations of government officials.  On December 22, 2009, five individuals were sentenced to death and several other individuals were sentenced to life imprisonment for plotting a coup and assassinations of government officials.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 23, 2010, and the EPRDF won 499 out of 546 seats in the House of People’s Representatives.  Opposition political parties won two seats in the House of People’s Representatives.  The EU sent 90 long-term observers and 60 short-term observers from 28 countries led by Thijs Berman of the Netherlands to monitor the parliamentary elections from April 14 to June 21, 2010.  The AU sent 59 observers from 25 countries led by former President Ketumile Masire of Botswana to monitor the parliamentary elections from May 16 to May 28, 2010.  Government police killed two individuals in election-related violence in the state of Oromia on May 23-25, 2010.  Opposition leader Birtukan Mideksa was released from prison on October 6, 2010.  Islamic extremists burned several Christian churches in the state of Oromia on March 2-3, 2011, resulting in the deaths of two individuals.  Some 4,000 individuals fled their homes in the town of Jimma.  In June 2011, more than 500 individuals were sentenced to prison for their involvement in the March 2011 Christian church burnings.  Government police clashed with Muslim protesters in Addis Ababa on July 21, 2012.  Prime Minister Meles Zenawi died of an illness in Brussels, Belgium on August 21, 2012.  Hailemariam Desalegn Boshe of the EPRDF was sworn in as acting prime minister on September 21, 2012.  Government police clashed with Muslim protesters in the town of Kofele in the state of Oromia on March 2-3, 2013, resulting in the deaths of several protesters and government policemen.  Some 10,000 individuals demonstrated against the government in Addis Ababa on June 2, 2013.  Mulatu Teshome was elected to a six-year term as president by the parliament on October 7, 2013.  Two Somali suicide bombers were accidentally killed prior to an attempted suicide bombing in Addis Ababa on October 13, 2013.  Four individuals were killed in a vehicle bombing in the western Benishangul Gumuz region on November 5, 2013.  Nine individuals were killed in an attack on a vehicle in the western Benishangul Gumuz region on April 15, 2014.  On April 28, 2014, nine individuals, including six bloggers and three journalists, were charged by the government with attempting to incite violence.  At least nine students were killed by government security forces during protests in Ambo in the state of Oromia on May 2, 2014.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 24, 2015, and the EPRDF won 500 out of the 547 seats in the House of Peoples’ Representatives.  The Somali People’s Democratic Party (SPDP) won 24 seats in the House of Peoples’ Representatives.  The AU sent nine long-term observers and 50 short-term observers headed by Hifikepunye Pohamba of Namibia to monitor the parliamentary elections from April 19 to June 7, 2015.  On August 3, 2015, 17 Muslim activists were sentenced to prison terms ranging from seven to 22 years for plotting to establish an Islamic state in Ethiopia.  Government police clashed with student protesters in the state of Oromia beginning in November 12, 2015, resulting in the deaths of dozens of protesters.  On February 28, 2016, a government minister accused leaders of the Oromo Federal Congress (OFC) of instigating the recent violence in the state of Oromia.  Ten individuals were killed in clashes between locals and government security forces in the Gonder region on July, 17, 2016.  Clashes between demonstrators and government security forces in the regions of Ambo, Dembi Dolo and Nekemt, as well as the city of Bahir Dar, resulted in the deaths of dozens of individuals on August 8, 2016.  Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn Boshe declared a six-month state of emergency in response to protests on October 9, 2016.  Over the following five weeks, more than 11,000 individuals were arrested by government security forces.  The Ethiopian parliament voted to end the state of emergency on August 4, 2017.  Ten individuals were killed in the town of Ambo in the Oromia region on October 26, 2017. The government of Ethiopia declared a state of emergency on February 21, 2018. On April 2, 2018, the Ethiopian parliament voted to end the state of emergency.  Violence between ethnic Somalis and Oromos in Moyale, a town bordering Kenya, in southern Ethiopia resulted in the deaths of at least 21 individuals.  The Ethiopian government confirmed that more than 260 people were arrested following a failed coup in the northern region of Amhara on June, 28, 2019.  The chief of staff of the Ethiopian army, General Seare Mekonnen, was killed by his own bodyguard in Addis Ababa on June 29, 2019.  Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed was named as the winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo on October 11, 2019.  Some 150 people were killed during clashes following the killing of singer Hachalu Hundessa in the Oromia region of Ethiopia on July 5, 2020.

Conflict Phase (November 3, 2020-November 3, 2022):  Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) forces attacked Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) forces in Tigray’s capital Mekele on November 3, 2020.  On November 4, 2020, U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo called for an immediate end to military hostilities in the Tigray region.  On November 6, 2020, government troops launched an airstrike against Tigray military forces.  On November 9, 2020, Moussa Faki Mahamat, Chairman of the AU Commission, urged the Ethiopian government and Tigray rebels to engage in dialogue.  On November 10, 2020, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed rejected the AU’s call for dialogue.  More than 500 mostly ethnic Amhara civilians were massacred by local militias and police loyal to the TPLF in the town of Mai Kadra in the Tigray region on November 9-10, 2020.  Eritrean Defense Forces (EDF) troops intervened in support of the Ethiopian government, and EDF troops entered the city of Axum in the Tigray region on November 19, 2020.  Government troops captured Mekele on November 28, 2020, resulting in the deaths of more than 25 civilians.  More than 300 individuals were massacred in Axum by EDF troops on November 28-29, 2020.  The EU imposed economic sanctions (suspension of financial assistance) to the Ethiopian government on December 16, 2020.  On April 2, 2021, the Group of Seven (G-7) condemned the “killing of civilians, sexual and gender based violence, indiscriminate shelling and the forced displacement of residents of Tigray and Eritrean refugees.”  The federal government declared a state of emergency in the southern part of Amhara regional state on April 19, 2021. The U.S. government voiced concern about the reported atrocities committed in Ethiopia’s Tigray region on April 20, 2021.  On April 22, 2021, the UN Security Council expressed its concerns over the deteriorating humanitarian situation and human rights abuses in the Tigray region.  On April 23, 2021, the U.S. government appointed Ambassador Jeffrey Feltman as U.S. Special Envoy for the Horn of Africa. On May 23, 2021, the U.S. government imposed economic sanctions (visa restrictions) against Ethiopian government and military officials, including TPLF officials, responsible for wrongful violence or human rights abuses in the Tigray region.  The U.S. government also imposed military sanctions (suspension of security assistance) against the Ethiopian government.  Parliamentary elections were held on June 21, 2021, and the Prosperity Party led by Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed won 410 out of the 436 contested seats in the House of Peoples’ Representatives.  The National Movement of Amhara won five seats in the House of People’s Representatives.  The AU deployed eight long-term and 34 short-term observers from 24 countries led by former President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria to monitor the parliamentary elections from June 2 to June 23, 2021.  Tigray rebels recaptured Mekele from government forces on June 28, 2021.  At least 30 individuals were killed in a government airstrike on a marketplace in the town of Togoga in the Tigray region on June 22, 2021.  The U.S. Department of State and the EU condemned the federal government for the airstrike.  On June 30, 2021, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed declared a unilateral ceasefire.  On July 12, 2021, U.S. Secretary of State Tony Blinken condemned retaliatory attacks against civilians in the Tigray region.  Tigray rebels launched attacks in the Afar region beginning on July 17, 2021.  Tigray rebels took control of the town of Lalibela in the Amhara region on August 5, 2021.  More than 200 individuals were killed in ethnic violence in the Oromia region in western Ethiopia on August 18-20, 2021.  On August 19, 2021, UN Secretary General António Guterres called for an immediate ceasefire in the conflict.  Former Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo was appointed as AU Special Envoy to the Horn of Africa on August 27, 2021.  On September 30, 2021, the U.S. government condemned the Ethiopian government for expelling seven UN officials from the country.  Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed was sworn in for a second five-year term on October 4, 2021.  Tigray rebels claimed to have captured the towns of Dessie and Kombolcha in the Amhara region on October 30-31, 2021.  On November 2, 2021, the federal government declared a six-month nationwide state of emergency.  On November 3, 2021, Tigray rebels captured the town of Kemise.  On November 5, 2021, the UN Security Council urged the Ethiopian government and the TPLF to “put an end to hostilities and to negotiate a lasting ceasefire”.  On November 14, 2021, AU Special Envoy Olusegun Obasanjo called for an immediate ceasefire in the conflict.  More than 20 individuals were killed in ethnic violence in Nonno District on November 20-21, 2021.  On November 24, 2021, UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres called for an “unconditional and immediate ceasefire” in the conflict.  On November 28, 2021, the government announced that it had taken control of the town of Chifra in the Afar region from Tigray rebels.  On December 6, 2021, the federal government announced that it had taken control of the towns of Dessie and Kombolcha in the Amhara region from Tigray rebels.  On December 18, 2021, the federal government announced that it had taken control of the towns of Kobo and Waldia in northern Ethiopia from Tigray rebels.  On December 19, 2021, the federal government announced that it had once again taken control of the town of Lalibela from Tigray rebels.  On December 20, 2021, the TPLF announced that it would be withdrawing its military forces from the neighboring regions of Amhara and Afar.  Replacing Ambassador Jeffrey Feltman, the U.S. government appointed Ambassador David Satterfield as U.S. Special Envoy for the Horn of Africa on January 6, 2022.  Some 56 individuals were killed in a government drone attack against a camp for displaced individuals in Dedebit in the Tigray region on January 7, 2022.  Some 17 individuals, mostly women, were killed in a government drone attack against a flour mill in the town of Mai Tsebri in the Tigray region on January 10, 2022.  The federal parliament voted to lifted the nationwide state of emergency on February 15, 2022.  On February 22, 2022, the Chinese government appointed Xue Bing as Chinese Special Envoy for the Horn of Africa.  On March 2, 2022, militants attacked a civilian and military vehicle convoy near the town of Metekel in the Benishangul-Gumuz region in western Ethiopia, resulting in the deaths of some 20 government soldiers, three civilians, and 30 militants.  Eleven more individuals were killed in the Benishangul-Gumuz region the following day.  On March 3, 2022, the UN Human Rights Council appointed Fatou Bensouda of Gambia to head the three-member International Commission of Human Rights Experts on Ethiopia, including Kaari Betty Murungi of Kenya and Steven Ratner of the U.S.  On March 24, 2022, the Ethiopian government announced an “indefinite humanitarian truce effective immediately” in the conflict against Tigray rebels.  The following day, the TPLF agreed to a cessation of military hostilities so that humanitarian assistance could be provided to the people of the Tigray region.  On March 31, 2022, suspected Amhara militants ambushed a vehicle carrying militiamen in the town of Korke in the Oromiya region, resulting in the deaths of 26 individuals.  On April 25, 2022, the TPLF announced that it had completed its withdrawal of military forces from the Afar region.  On April 26, 2022, armed men attacked Muslims and Islamic mosques in the town of Gondar in northern Ethiopia on April 26, 2022, resulting in the deaths of 20 Muslims.  Government police clashed with Muslim in Addis Ababa on May 2, 2022.  The AU appointed former Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo as chief mediator for the conflict.  The AU mediated peace negotiations in Pretoria, South Africa beginning on October 25, 2022.  Representatives of the government and TPLF signed an AU-mediated peace agreement, which was called the Permanent Cessation of Hostilities Agreement, in Pretoria, South Africa on November 2, 2022.  The peace agreement included provisions for a permanent cessation of military hostilities, protection of civilians, humanitarian access, and disarmament/demobilization of TPLF soldiers.  The permanent ceasefire went into effect on November 3, 2022.  More than 160,000 individuals, including more than 3,000 federal government soldiers and more than 5,000 TPLF rebels, were killed during the conflict.  More than two million individuals were displaced during the conflict.

Post-Conflict Phase (November 4, 2022-present):  The African Union Monitoring, Verification, and Compliance Mission (AU-MVCM) was deployed in Mekelle, Tigray Region of Ethiopia on December 29, 2022.  Major General Stephen Radina of Kenya served as head of the AU-MVCM, which consisted of ten monitors.  The mandate of the AU-MVCM was to monitor the ceasefire agreement and verify the disarmament/demobilization of TPLF soldiers.  Military forces from the Amhara region completed their withdrawal from the Tigray region on January 12, 2023.  On March 23, 2023, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed established an interim administration for the Tigray region headed by Getachew Reda of the TPLF.  On April 6, 2023, the federal government announced plans to to integrate regional special forces into the federal government-controlled military and police forces.  Protests against the federal government’s plans began in the Amhara region on April 9, 2023.  Ethnic-Amharic militiamen, known as Fano, launched an insurgency against the federal government in the Amhara region on August 1, 2023.  The government declared a state of emergency in response to the insurgency in the Amhara region on August 4, 2023.  More than 25 individuals were killed in a federal government military airstrike in the town of Finote Selam in the Amhara region on August 13, 2023.  Federal government troops captured the town of Majete from Fano militiamen on September 3, 2023, resulting in the deaths of 70 civilians.  On October 3, 2023, the EU announced a package of economic assistance worth 650 million euros to be provided to the federal government.  Five civilians were killed in a government military drone strike in the town of Wegel Tena in the Amhara region on November 30, 2023.  Federal government troops clashed with Fano militiamen in the city of Gondar on January 8, 2024.  Fano militiamen launched a military offensive against federal government troops in Bahir Dar on February 29, 2024.

[Sources: ABC News, April 20, 2021; Africa Diary, May 27-June 2, 1976; AfricaNews, October 26, 2018; Africa Research Bulletin (ARB), February 1-28, 1974, September 1-30, 1974, October 1-31, 1974, December 1-31, 1974, February 1-28, 1977, May 1-31, 1977; African Union (AU), May 18, 2010, May 26, 2010, May 26, 2015, June 4, 2021, June 18, 2021, June 23, 2021; Agence France Presse (AFP), October 9, 2007; Alarabiya News, November 5, 2020; Al Jazeera, May 27, 2015, December 8, 2015, October 10, 2016, April 17, 2017, April 19, 2021, May 24, 2021, May 27, 2021, July 10, 2021, July 19, 2021, August 26 2021, October 4, 2021, October 30, 2021, October 31, 2021, November 2, 2021, November 5, 2021, November 14, 2021, November 25, 2021, December 6, 2021, December 18, 2021, December 20, 2021, December 24, 2021, January 6, 2022, January 8, 2022, January 11, 2022, February 15, 2022, March 14, 2022, March 24, 2022, March 25, 2022, April 25, 2022, April 27, 2022, May 2, 2022, October 18, 2022, November 2, 2022, November 3, 2022, January 13, 2023, March 23, 2023, April 7, 2023, August 2, 2023, August 4, 2023, August 7, 2023, August 8, 2023, August 9, 2023, August 14, 2023, November 2, 2023, November 9, 2023, December 29, 2023, February 13, 2024; Amnesty International, September 17, 2018; Associated Press (AP), May 17, 1989, February 8, 2000, April 22, 2021, May 30, 2021, August 4, 2023, August 7, 2023, August 10, 2023, August 14, 2023, September 22, 2023, September 25, 2023, October 3, 2023; Banks and Muller, 1998, 303-310; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), August 12, 1999, August 19, 1999, April 17, 2001, April 18, 2001, April 26, 2001, June 8, 2001, May 24, 2002, June 29, 2002, July 5, 2002, July 16, 2002, August 21, 2002, December 16, 2003, January 13, 2004, February 4, 2004, February 11, 2004, February 12, 2004, May 6, 2004, May 18, 2004, April 21, 2005, April 27, 2005, May 6, 2005, May 15, 2005, May 17, 2005, May 28, 2005, June 14, 2005, June 15, 2005, August 9, 2005, August 25, 2005, November 7, 2005, November 9, 2005, January 19, 2006, May 13, 2006, May 22, 2006, June 12, 2006, June 30, 2006, August 4, 2006, August 10, 2006, September 15, 2006, October 15, 2006, October 19, 2006, December 12, 2006, January 11, 2007, April 24, 2007, April 25, 2007, April 29, 2007, May 21, 2007, May 28, 2007, June 11, 2007, July 16, 2007, July 20, 2007, October 23, 2007, May 20, 2008, May 26, 2008, December 30, 2008, February 26, 2009, April 16, 2009, July 1, 2009, November 19, 2009, December 22, 2009, May 24, 2010, May 25, 2010, May 26, 2010, October 6, 2010, August 21, 2012, September 21, 2012, February 6, 2014, May 2, 2014, June 22, 2015, October 20, 2016, October 29, 2019, October 11, 2019, November 11, 2020, April 2, 2021, May 30, 2021, June 29, 2021, July 11, 2021, August 19, 2021, August 26, 2021, August 27, 2021, October 4, 2021, October 28, 2021, November 2, 2021, November 3, 2021, November 22, 2021, November 24, 2021, December 6, 2021, January 8, 2022, January 11, 2022, January 20, 2022, January 26, 2022, February 15, 2022, March 3, 2022, March 24, 2022, April 20, 2022, April 27, 2022, April 29, 2022, May 2, 2022, May 3, 2022; Brogan, 1992, 27-39; Cable News Network (CNN), June 24, 2021; Carter Center (CC), May 16, 2005; Degenhardt, 1988, 99-106; Deutsche Welle (DW), July 17, 2016, October 8, 2016, November 17, 2016, June 28, 2019, December 16, 2020, June 18, 2021; European Union (EU), December 7, 2019; Facts on File, December 15-21, 1960, July 27, 1974, September 14, 1974, November 30, 1974, May 3, 1975, August 16, 1975, October 11, 1975, December 13, 1975, February 12, 1977, April 2, 1977, June 4, 1977, May 19, 1978, May 3, 2001; Human Rights Watch (HRW), May 10, 2001, October 2, 2016, August 4, 2017, February 21, 2018; Jessup, 1998, 188-190; Keesing’s Record of World Events, November 16-23, 1957, September 11-18, 1971, July 30-August 5, 1973, March 25-31, 1974, July 29-August 4, 1974, September 30-October 6, 1974, March 24-30, 1975, March 1991, May 1991, June 1991, June 1994, July 1994, August 1995; Langer, 1972, 1281; Los Angeles Times, May 18, 1989, May 19, 1989; Medicins Sans Frontieres (MSF), February 8, 2000; New York Times, February 6, 1988, May 17, 1989, May 19, 1989, June 8, 2005, July 27, 2015, December 16, 2015, June 30, 2021; Panafrican News Agency (PANA), May 11, 2000, May 14, 2000, May 15, 2000, June 16, 2000; Reuters, May 15, 2000, March 4, 2001, April 21, 2001, April 27, 2001, June 13, 2005, November 3, 2009, May 24, 2010, May 26, 2010, March 13, 2011, March 24, 2011, July 1, 2011, May 11, 2012, July 21, 2012, March 26, 2013, June 2, 2013, August 8, 2013, October 14, 2013, November 6, 2013, December 19, 2013, April 16, 2014, April 28, 2014, May 27, 2015, June 22, 2015, August 3, 2015, March 8, 2016, December 15, 2018, December 8, 2020, March 1, 2021, May 27, 2021, June 23, 2021, July 12, 2021, August 5, 2021, August 20, 2021, September 30, 2021, October 4, 2021, October 5, 2021, October 6, 2021, November 2, 2021, November 6, 2021, November 25, 2021, November 29, 2021, December 20, 2021, January 5, 2022, January 7, 2022, January 10, 2022, February 15, 2022, February 22, 2022, March 3, 2022, March 14, 2022, March 25, 2022, March 28, 2022, March 31, 2022, April 25, 2022, April 27, 2022; Schwab 1972; Sudan Tribune, October 5, 2006, March 9, 2011, March 1, 2016; United Nations (UN), April 22, 2021; United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), April 11, 1996; U.S. Department of States, April 23, 2021, September 30, 2021; USA Today, January 8, 2007; Voice of America (VOA), March 7, 2011, September 24, 2013, May 20, 2015, May 27, 2015, December 10, 2015, December 19, 2015, April 2, 2018, July 5, 2020, March 12, 2021, May 30, 2021, June 17, 2021, January 5, 2022, January 6, 202; Washington Post, May 25, 1977, May 15, 2005, May 26, 2006, January 2016; Xinhua News Agency, May 27, 2006, June 5, 2021, June 23, 2021.]

 

Selected Bibliography

Clapham, Christopher. 1968. “The Ethiopian Coup d’ Etat of December 1960. The Journal of Modern African Studies,  vol. 6 (4), pp. 495-507.

Gilkes, Patrick. 1975. The Dying Lion: Feudalism and Modernization in Ethiopia. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Harbeson, John W. 1998. “Elections and Democratization in Post-Mengistu Ethiopia.” In Kumar, Krishna, editor. Postconflict Elections, Democratization, and International Assistance. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 111-131.

Lyons, Terrence. 1996. “Closing the Transition: The May 1995 Elections in Ethiopia.” Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 34 (1), pp. 121-142.

Marcus, Harold G. 1983. Ethiopia, Great Britain, and the United States: The Politics of Empire. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.

Markakis, John and Asmelash Beyene. 1967. “Representative Institutions in Ethiopia,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 5 (2), pp. 193-219.

Schwab, Peter, editor. 1972. Ethiopia & Haile Selassie. New York: Facts on File, Inc.

Tareke, Gebru. 2004. “From Af Abet to Shire: The Defeat and Demise of Ethiopia’s ‘Red’ Army, 1988-1989,” Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 42 (2), pp. 239-281.