Crisis Phase (March 23, 1919-January 1, 1948): The Italian Fasces of Combat (Fasci Italiani di Combattimento) was established by Benito Mussolini in Milan on March 23, 1919. On April 15, 1919, Italian socialist and fascist supporters clashed in Milan and fascists attacked the offices of the Italian socialist newspaper Forward! (L’Avanti!), resulting in the deaths of four individuals. Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando resigned on June 19, 1919, and Francesco Nitti formed a government as prime minister on June 20, 1919. Italian nationalists led by Gabriele d’Annunzio seized and established a government in the city of Fiume on September 12, 1919. Fiume was claimed by both Yugoslavia and Italy following the First World War. Parliamentary elections were held on November 16, 1919, and the Liberal-Democratic (L-D) coalition won 252 out of 508 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Italian Socialist Party (ISP) won 156 seats, and the Catholic Popular Party (Populari) won 100 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The government of Prime Minister Nitti collapsed on June 9, 1920, and Giovanni Giolitti of the L-D coalition formed a government as prime minister on June 10, 1920. Italian police suppressed demonstrations by farmers in Panicale on July 15, 1920, resulting in the deaths of six individuals. Some 320 individuals were killed in political violence between April 1919 and September 1920. Communists killed ten Italian socialist officials in Bologna on November 21, 1920. Gabriele d’Annunzio declared war against the Italian government on December 1, 1920, and Italian government troops forced the nationalists out of Fiume on December 27, 1920. Italian policemen killed eleven workers who were protesting in Colle San Lorenzo in the Province of Rieti on December 11, 1920. Socialists and fascists clashed in Ferrara on December 20, 1920, resulting in the deaths of four fascists and two socialists. Gabriele d’Annunzio left Fiume on January 18, 1921. Communists and Fascists clashed in Florence beginning on February 27, 1921. Communists killed nine Italian policemen in Empoli on March 1, 1921. Anarchists bombed the Diana Hotel in Milan on March 23, 1921, resulting in the deaths of 17 individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on May 15, 1921, and the L-D coalition (National Bloc) won 275 out of 535 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Populari won 108 seats, and the ISP won 123 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.
Supporters of the FM won 35 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Some 40 individuals were killed in election-related violence on May 15, 1921. More than 275 individuals were killed in political violence throughout the country between January and May 1921, including 66 fascists and 24 policemen. Prime Minister Giolitti resigned on June 27, 1921, and Ivanhoe Bonomi of the L-D coalition formed a government as prime minister on July 5, 1921. Italian policemen clashed with fascists in Sarzana on July 21, 1921, resulting in the deaths of eleven fascists. The National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista – PNF) was established by Benito Mussolini on November 9, 1921. Prime Minister Bonomi resigned on February 9, 1922, and Luigi Facta formed a new government as prime minister on February 25, 1922. Members of the PNF overthrew the government in Fiume on March 3, 1922, but Italian government troops occupied the city on March 17, 1922. Members of the PNF seized control of the government in Milan on August 3-4, 1922. Benito Mussolini demanded that control of the central government in Rome be turned over to the PNF on October 24, 1922. Following the “March on Rome” by more than 25,000 fascists, King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Benito Mussolini as prime minister on October 29, 1922. Prime Minister Mussolini form a coalition “national government” on October 30, 1922. Two fascists, Giuseppe Dresda and Lucio Bazzani, were killed by a communist militant in Turin on December 18, 1922. Fascists led by Piero Brandimarte killed eleven communists and trade unionists in Turin on December 18-20, 1922. King Victor Emmanuel III granted Prime Minister Mussolini with emergency powers to restore order through December 31, 1923. Some 3,300 individuals were killed in political violence between 1921 and 1923. Yugoslavia ceded Fiume to Italy on January 27, 1924, and Italy annexed Fiume on March 16, 1924. Prime Minister Mussolini dissolved the parliament in January 1924. Parliamentary elections were held on April 6, 1924, and the PNF coalition won 374 out of 535 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Populari won 39 seats, and the Communist Party of Italy (Partito Communista Italiano – PCI) won 19 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Giacomo Matteotti, leader of the ISP, claimed election fraud and denounced the government of Prime Minister Mussolini on May 30, 1924. Giacomo Matteotti was murdered by supporters of Prime Minister Mussolini on June 10, 1924. Most opposition members of the Chamber of Deputies walked out on June 12, 1924. Nine individuals were killed in political violence in Messina on June 25, 1925. Prime Minister Mussolini survived attempted assassinations on September 11 and October 31, 1926. On November 9, 1926, the Italian government approved emergency laws that led to the banning of opposition political parties and the imprisonment of several opponents of the fascist government. Parliamentary elections were held on March 24, 1929, and the PNF won 400 out of 400 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Fascist Grand Council headed by Prime Minister Mussolini dissolved the Chamber of Deputies on October 8, 1938. British and U.S. troops successfully landed on the island of Sicily on July 10, 1943. The Fascist Grand Council demanded the restoration of a constitutional monarchy with a democratic parliament on July 24, 1943, and King Victor Emmanuel III ordered the resignation of Prime Minister Mussolini on July 25, 1943. Marshal Pietro Badoglio formed a government as prime minister, and dissolved the PNF on July 28, 1943. Italian government representatives met with Allied representatives in Sicily on August 5, 1943. British and U.S. troops landed in southern Italy on September 3, 1943. The Italian government agreed to an armistice with Allied countries on September 3, 1943. German troops occupied the northern two-thirds of Italy and Italian-occupied Greece beginning on September 9, 1943. German troops led by Otto Skorzeny rescued Benito Mussolini from captivity in Gran Sasso d’Italia on September 16, 1943. Benito Mussolini proclaimed the Italian Social Republic in northern Italy. British troops captured Naples on October 1, 1943. The National Liberation Front (NLF), which consisted of political parties previously banned by Benito Mussolini, called for the abdication of King Victor Emmanuel III in November 1943. Former Prime Minister Mussolini was captured and executed by Italian partisans on April 28, 1945. Some 8,000 out of 40,000 Italian Jews were killed during the Second World War. Ferruccio Parri formed a coalition government as prime minister on June 17, 1945. The government of Prime Minister Ferruccio Parri collapsed on November 24, 1945. Alcide de Pasperi, leader of the Christian Democratic Party of Italy (Partito Democrazia Cristiana Italiano – PDCI), formed a government as prime minister on December 9, 1945. On May 9, 1946, King Victor Emmanuel III abdicated following a vote by the PDCI in favor of establishing a republic. King Victor Emmanuel’s son, Humbert II, assumed the throne on May 9, 1946. Some 54 percent of Italians voted in favor of a republic in a referendum held on June 2-3, 1946, and King Humbert II abdicated on June 13, 1946. Enrico de Nicola was elected president by the Constituent Assembly on June 28, 1946, and Alcide de Gasperi formed a coalition government as prime minister on July 12, 1946. Eight individuals were killed in a right-wing attacked against a communist parade in Greci, Sicily on May 1, 1947. Allied troops were withdrawn from Italy on December 14, 1947, and the Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution on December 22, 1947. The constitution went into effect on January 1, 1948. More than 10,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.
Post-Crisis Phase (January 2, 1948-December 11, 1969): Parliamentary elections were held on April 18-19, 1948, and the PDCI won 307 out of 574 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Popular Front (PF), a coalition of communists and socialists, won 182 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Luigi Einaudi was elected president by the parliament on May 11, 1948. Alcide de Gasperi of the PDCI formed a government as prime minister on May 23, 1948. Government police and students clashed in Rome beginning on March 12, 1968. Parliamentary elections were held on May 20, 1968, and the Christian Democratic Party (Partito Democrazia Cristiana Italiano – PDCI) won 266 out of 630 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Communist Party of Italy (Partito Communista Italiano – PCI) won 177 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Prime Minister Aldo Moro resigned on June 5, 1968, and Giovanni Leone formed a government as prime minister. Mariano Rumor of the PDCI formed a coalition government on December 13, 1968. Prime Minister Rumor resigned on July 5, 1969. Mariano Rumor formed a PDCI government in August 1969.
Crisis Phase (December 12, 1969-June 1, 1990): Right-wing terrorists exploded a bomb in Milan on December 12, 1969, resulting in the deaths of 16 individuals. The left-wing terrorist group, Red Brigades (Brigate Rossi – BR), was established in opposition to the government in 1969. Prime Minister Rumor resigned on February 7, 1970, and Emilio Colombo of the PDCI formed a coalition government on August 6, 1970. Giovanni Leone was elected president on December 24, 1971. Prime Minister Colombo resigned on January 15, 1972, and Giulio Andreotti of the PDCI formed a coalition government on February 18, 1972. President Leone dissolved the parliament on February 28, 1972. Parliamentary elections were held on May 7-8, 1972, and the PDCI won 267 out of 630 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Giulio Andreotti of the PDCI formed a coalition government with the Social Democratic Party of Italy (Partito Socialista Democratico Italiano – PSDI) and Liberal Party (Partito Liberale Italiano – PLI) on June 26, 1972. Prime Minister Andreotti resigned on June 12, 1973, and Mariano Rumor formed a coalition government on July 8, 1973. Members of the Black Order, a right-wing terrorist group, bombed a demonstration in Brescia on May 28, 1974, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals. Black Order terrorists exploded a bomb on a train traveling from Bologna to Florence on August 5, 1974, resulting in the deaths of 12 individuals. Prime Minister Rumor resigned on October 3, 1974, and Aldo Moro formed a coalition government as prime minister on November 23, 1974. Black Order terrorists exploded a bomb in Savona on November 21, 1974, resulting in the deaths of one individual. Regional elections were held in June 1975, and the PCI won 33 percent of the vote. Prime Minister Moro resigned on January 7, 1976, and he formed a new government as prime minister on February 12, 1976. Parliamentary elections were held in June 1976, and the PDCI won 39 percent of the vote. The PCI won 228 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Giulio Andreotti of the PDCI formed a new government on July 29, 1976. Left-wing students protested and rioted in Rome and other cities on March 14, 1977. Prime Minister Andreotti resigned on January 16, 1978. BR terrorists kidnapped former Prime Minister Moro and killed five bodyguards on March 16, 1978. Aldo Moro was killed by BR terrorists in Rome on May 9, 1978. Members of the left-wing Front Line (Prima Linea – PL) killed Professor Alfredo Paolella on October 11, 1978, and killed three individuals in Patricia on November 8, 1978. PL terrorists killed a deputy public prosecutor in Milan on January 29, 1979. Prime Minister Andreotti resigned on January 31, 1979, and he formed a new coalition government as prime minister on March 21, 1979. PL terrorists killed a PDCI official in Palermo on March 9, 1979. Prime Minister Andreotti resigned after losing a vote of confidence on March 31, 1979. Italian President Alessandro Pertini dissolved the parliament on April 1, 1979. BR terrorists killed one government policeman in Rome on May 3, 1979. Parliamentary elections were held on June 3-4, 1979, and the PDCI won 262 out of 630 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PCI won 201 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Francesco Cossiga formed a coalition government as prime minister in August 1979. Prime Minister Cossiga resigned on March 19, 1980, and he formed a new coalition government on April 4, 1980. Members of the right-wing terrorist group, Los Novios de la Muerte, killed 85 individuals in a bombing of a railway station in Bologna on August 2, 1980 (Bolivia agreed on September 10, 1984 to extradite Emilio Carbone Bacigalupo to Italy for his involvement in the bombing). P rime Minister Cossiga resigned on September 27, 1980, and Arnaldo Forlani of the PDCI formed a coalition government as prime minister on October 19, 1980. BR leader, Mario Moretti, was arrested in Milan on April 4, 1981. Prime Minister Forlani resigned on May 26, 1981, and Giovanni Spadolini of the Republican Party of Italy (Partito Republicano Italiano – PRI) formed a coalition government as prime minister on June 28, 1981. General James Dozier of the U.S. was kidnapped by BR terrorists in Verona on December 17, 1981, and he was rescued by Italian police on January 28, 1982. Amintore Fanfani of the PDCI formed a government as prime minister in December 1982. Prime Minister Fanfani resigned on April 29, 1983. President Pertini dissolved the parliament on May 4, 1983. Parliamentary elections were held on June 26-27, 1983, and the PDCI won 225 out of 630 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PCI won 198 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Twelve members of BR were convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on July 26, 1983, while 48 others were sentenced to shorter terms in prison. Bettino Craxi of the Socialist Party of Italy (Partito Socialista Italiano – PSI) formed a coalition government as prime minister on August 4, 1983. Enrico Berlinguer, secretary-general of the PCI, died on June 11, 1984. A right-wing terrorist group bombed a train traveling from Florence to Bologna on December 23, 1984, resulting in the deaths of 29 individuals. BR terrorists kidnapped and killed Enzo Tarantelli, an economics professor at Rome University, on March 27, 1985. Francesco Cossiga was elected president on July 3, 1985. BR terrorists killed Lando Conti, a former mayor of Florence, on February 10, 1986. Prime Minister Craxi resigned on June 27, 1986, and he formed a new coalition government as prime minister on August 1, 1986. BR terrorists killed two government policemen on February 14, 1987. Prime Minister Craxi resigned on March 3, 1987, and Amintore Fanfani of the PDCI formed a government as prime minister on April 18, 1987. Italian Air Force General Lucio Giorgieri was assassinated by BR terrorists on March 20, 1987. Prime Minister Fanfani resigned after losing a vote of confidence on April 26, 1987. Parliamentary elections were held on June 14-15, 1987, and the PDCI won 234 out of 630 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PCI won 177 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Giovanni Goria of the PDCI formed a coalition government as prime minister on July 29, 1987. Prime Minister Goria resigned on March 12, 1988, and Ciriaco de Mita of the PDCI formed a coalition government as prime minister on April 13, 1988. BR terrorists killed Roberto Ruffilli, a leading member of the PDCI, in Forli on April 16, 1988. On June 1, 1990, nine individuals were convicted and sentence to life imprisonment for their involvement in the murder of Roberto Ruffilli. Some 400 individuals were killed during the crisis.
[Sources: Arnold et al., 1991, 167-176; Beigbeder, 1994, 52; Clodfelter, 1992, 590, 985; Jessup, 1998, 343-350, 616-617; Keesing’s Record of World Events, May 1-8, 1948, May 22-29, 1948, February 26-March 4, 1972, April 1-8, 1972, July 29-August 5, 1972, August 20-26, 1973, March 18-24, 1974, November 18-24, 1974, February 10-16, 1975, October 27-November 2, 1975, May 7, 1976, June 2, 1978, June 30, 1978, June 29, 1979, July 11, 1980, October 17, 1980, January 16, 1981, August 28, 1981, September 1983, July 1984, August 1985, June 1986, February 1987, December 1987, June 1988; Langer, 1972, 997-1002, 1188-1190.]
Selected Bibliography
Bosworth, R. J. B. 2002. Mussolini. London, Arnold and New York: Oxford University Press.
Clark, Martin. 2005. Mussolini: Profiles in Power, Oxfordshire, UK: Taylor & Francis Group.
Seton-Watson, Christopher. 1967. Italy from Liberalism to Fascism 1870-1925. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.