Pre-Crisis Phase (May 14, 1972-July 10, 1979): The Tamil Federal Party (TFP), All-Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC), Tamil Progressive Front (TPF), and the Ceylon Worker’s Congress (CWC) established the Tamil United Front (TUF) on May 14, 1972. The Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization (TELO) headed by S. Thangathurai was established in 1974.
Crisis Phase (May 5, 1976-July 22, 1983): The Tamil New Tigers (TNT) was renamed the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) on May 5, 1976. The TUF was renamed the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) on May 14, 1976. Ethnic-Tamils clashed with ethnic-Sinhalese on August 15-31, 1977, resulting in the deaths of some 300 individuals. Some 40,000 ethnic-Tamils were displaced during the clashes. Ethnic-Tamils killed four government policemen near Mannar on April 7, 1978, and ethnic-Tamils killed one government policeman in Jaffna on May 6, 1978. Two government policemen were killed by ethnic-Tamils on December 5, 1978. On July 11, 1979, the government declared a state-of-emergency in the Jaffna district after the killings of 14 government policemen in the past 12 months. The parliament approved the Prevention of Terrorism Act on July 12, 1979. The state-of-emergency in the Jaffna district expired on December 27, 1979. Two government policemen were killed by ethnic-Tamils in Jaffna on May 31, 1981. The Sri Lankan government declared a state-of-emergency on June 4-9, 1981. Ethnic-Tamils killed one government policeman near Jaffna on July 28, 1981, and four ethnic-Tamils were killed in political violence on August 12, 1981. The Sri Lankan government declared a state-of-emergency on August 17, 1981. The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) investigated communal tensions in Sri Lanka, and issued a report on December 14, 1981. The Sri Lankan government lifted the state-of-emergency on January 16, 1982. Ethnic-Tamils killed four government policemen in Point Pedro on July 2, 1982. Some 500 individuals were killed, and some 50,000 individuals were displaced during the crisis.
Conflict Phase (July 23, 1983-June 18, 1985): Tamil rebels killed 15 government soldiers near Jaffna on July 23, 1983. The Indian government provided arms and military training to the Tamil rebels, while the governments of Israel, South Africa, Belgium, and Singapore provided military assistance (weapons) to the Sri Lankan government. Some 3,000 Tamils were killed, and some 150,000 Tamils were displaced in 1983. Representatives of the Sri Lankan government and Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) held negotiations in Colombo beginning on January 10, 1984. Tamil rebels killed two government policemen in Point Pedro on January 11, 1984. Some 95 individuals, including 12 government soldiers, were killed during clashed between government troops and Tamil rebels on August 4-15, 1984. Government and TULF representatives ended negotiations on August 29, 1984. Four government policemen were killed by Tamil rebels near Point Pedro on September 1, 1984, and nine government soldiers were killed by Tamil rebels near Mullaittivu on September 10, 1984. Fifteen ethnic-Tamils were killed near Vavuniya on September 10, 1984, and two government policemen were killed by Tamil rebels on September 17, 1984. Tamil rebels attacked a government police station in Chavakachcheri on November 20, 1984, resulting in the deaths of 29 government policemen. General Vernon Walters, a special envoy of the U.S., expressed support for the government during his visit to the country on December 9-11, 1984. Tamil rebels attacked the government naval base in Karainagar on May 3, 1985, resulting in the deaths of some 20 rebels and three government naval personnel. Tamil rebels attacked the Sinhalese community on Anuradhapura on May 14, 1985, resulting in the deaths of some 138 individuals. The parties agreed to a ceasefire on June 18, 1985. Some 10,000 individuals were killed, and some 200,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict between July 1983 and June 1985.
Post-Conflict Phase (June 19, 1985-January 11, 1986): The government of Bhutan facilitated negotiations between government and Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) representatives in Thimbu on July 8-13 and August 12-18, 1985.
Conflict Phase (January 12, 1986-July 29, 1987): Government troops and Tamil rebels resumed military hostilities on January 12, 1986. Medicins Sans Frontieres (MSF) established a mission consisting of some 200 personnel to provide humanitarian assistance beginning in 1986. The Indian government condemned Sri Lankan military operations against Tamil rebels in the Jaffna peninsula on May 19, 1986. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed near Vavuniya on October 12-15, 1986, resulting in the deaths of 65 rebels and 21 government soldiers. India mediated negotiations between the parties between November 24, 1986 and February 9, 1987. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) announced that it was taking over the civil administration of the Jaffna peninsula on January 1, 1987. Some 113 individuals were killed in a LTTE car bombing on a bus station in Colombo in April 1987. India provided humanitarian assistance to the Tamils on the Jaffna peninsula beginning on June 3, 1987. Indian and government representatives signed an agreement in Colombo, Sri Lanka on July 29, 1987, which provided for a ceasefire between government troops and Tamil rebels. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict between January 1986 and July 1987.
Post-Conflict Phase (July 30, 1987-June 10, 1990): India deployed the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) consisting of 80,000 troops in the country on July 30, 1987. The IPKF was responsible for enforcing the ceasefire agreement and for supervising the disarmament of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and other militant groups. The U.S. government agreed to provide military assistance (military aircraft) to the government on July 30, 1987. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) assisted in the repatriation of some 100,000 refugees from India between 1987 and April 1995. Tamil rebels captured Jaffna in October 1987, resulting in the deaths of some 190 individuals. Indian troops recaptured Jaffna on October 24, 1987, resulting in the deaths of 460 Indian soldiers, 400 Tamil rebels, and 1,000 civilians. The World Bank (WB) provided reconstruction assistance to the government between March 15, 1988 and June 30, 1994. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) provided humanitarian assistance to civilians displaced by the conflict beginning in 1989. Peace Brigades International (PBI) established a mission consisting of three personnel to promote human rights in Sri Lanka in 1989. Some 51 individuals were killed in a LTTE car bombing in Trincomalee in April 1989. The government and LTTE agreed to a ceasefire in May 1989. The government asked India to withdraw its peacekeeping force on June 1, 1989. Indian troops and Tamil rebels clashed near Mullaitivu on September 29, 1989, resulting in the deaths of five rebels and two Indian soldiers. India completed the withdrawal of its peacekeeping troops from the country on March 24, 1990. Some 5,000 individuals, including 1,155 Indian peacekeeping troops and 2,200 Tamil rebels, were killed in political violence between July 1987 and June 1990.
Conflict Phase (June 11, 1990-January 6, 1995): Government troops and Tamil rebels resumed military hostilities on June 11, 1990. Tamil rebels killed 44 government soldiers on Mannar island on February 17, 1991. Defense Minister Ranjan Wijeratne and 18 other individuals were killed in a Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) car bombing in Colombo on March 2, 1991. Government troops attacked a LTTE camp near Batticaloa on April 9, 1991, resulting in the deaths of 77 rebels and seven government soldiers. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed on Karaitivu and Kayts islands on April 25-29, 1991, resulting in the deaths of 126 rebels and 31 government soldiers. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed near Mullaittivu on September 2-25, 1991, resulting in the deaths of some 600 rebels and 73 government soldiers. Amnesty International (AI) sent a fact-finding mission to investigate human rights abuses in June 1991. Amnesty International (AI) issued a report on September 10, 1991, which criticized the government for killing thousands of individuals. Tamil rebels killed some 140 individuals in the Polunnaruwa district on October 15, 1992. Sri Lanka President Ranasinghe Premadasa was assassinated by a Tamil rebel on May 1, 1993. Tamil rebels declared a unilateral ceasefire on November 12, 1994. The government and the LTTE agreed to a ceasefire on January 6, 1995. Some 22,000 individuals were killed during the conflict between June 1990 and January 1995.
Post-Conflict Phase (January 7, 1995-April 18, 1995): The governments of Canada, Netherlands, and Norway agreed to deploy a ceasefire monitoring mission, but the mission was never fully deployed.
Conflict Phase (April 19, 1995-February 22, 2002): Government troops and Tamil rebels resumed military hostilities on April 19, 1995. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed near Amparai on May 8, 1995, resulting in the deaths of 19 government soldiers. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed in northeast Sri Lanka on May 13-15, 1995, resulting in the deaths of some 50 rebels and 24 government soldiers. Tamil rebels killed 42 civilians in Kallarawa on May 26, 1995. The Sri Lankan government formally declared war against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) on May 18, 1995. Tamil rebels killed 42 civilians in a Sinhalese village on May 26, 1995. The European Union (EU) condemned the LTTE and appealed for peaceful negotiations on May 29, 1995. The EU condemned the LTTE on November 15, 1995. Tamil rebels exploded a bomb in Colombo on January 31, 1996. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) condemned the LTTE bombing on February 2, 1996. The EU condemned the LTTE for the bombing in Colombo on February 6, 1996. Tamil rebels attacked government troops near Puliyankulam on September 15, 1997, resulting in the deaths of 12 government soldiers and 22 rebels. Tamil rebels exploded a bomb in Colombo on March 5, 1998, resulting in the deaths of several individuals. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan condemned LTTE for the bombing in Colombo on March 5, 1998. The Peace Brigades International (PBI) mission was disbanded on May 31, 1998. Some 3,800 Tamils fled as refugees to India in 1998, and some 110,000 Tamils were refugees in India in December 1998. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) established a mine-clearing mission consisting of ten individuals in July 1999. On July 29, 1999, the US Committee for Refugees (USCR) condemned the LTTE for the assassination of human rights activist, Neelan Thiruchelvam. Some 650,000 Sri Lankans were internally-displaced in September 1999. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed on December 6, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 14 rebels and three government soldiers. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed in northern Sri Lanka on December 13, 1999, resulting in the deaths of some 200 rebels and ten government soldiers. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed in Batticaloa on December 14, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 11 rebels and two government soldiers. Tamil rebels bombed two political rallies in Colombo on December 18, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 25 civilians. Amnesty International (AI) condemned the LTTE bombings on December 20, 1999. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed in northern Sri Lanka on December 23-24, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 11 government soldiers and 80 rebels. Nine government soldiers and one civilian were killed in a mine explosion near Vavuniya on January 15, 2000. Tamil rebels bombed a post office in Vavuniya on January 27, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 11 individuals. Amnesty International (AI) condemned the LTTE for the bombing on January 28, 2000. President Chandrika Kumaratunge invited Norway to facilitate negotiations between the government and LTTE in January 2000. Tamil rebels killed 13 policemen in the Batticaloa district on February 15, 2000. The Norwegian government agreed to facilitate negotiations between the government and LTTE on February 16, 2000 (Erik Solheim was appointed special envoy). Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed in the Jaffna peninsula on March 8, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 13 rebels and two government soldiers. Government police and Tamil rebels clashed in Colombo on March 10-11, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 13 civilians, six policemen, and four rebels. Amnesty International (AI) condemned the LTTE on March 10, 2000. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed near Kodikamam and Pallai villages on April 2, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 25 rebels and four government soldiers. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed in northern Sri Lanka on April 13-14, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 18 rebels and four government soldiers. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed on the Jaffna peninsula on April 15, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 13 rebels. Government troops killed 26 rebels near Ampara on May 31, 2000. Tamil rebels killed 20 civilians in Muttur on October 2, 2000. Amnesty International (AI) condemned the LTTE on October 2, 2000. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed in Nagar Kovil on October 5, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 30 rebels and two government soldiers. Parliamentary elections were held October 10, 2000. Some 25 individuals were killed in election-related violence. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed on the Jaffna peninsula on October 29, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 25 rebels. Tamil rebels killed eight government soldiers in the Vavuniya district on November 30, 2000. Government troops and Tamil rebels clashed near Jaffna city on December 16, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 26 rebels and 11 government soldiers. The European Union (EU) appealed for peaceful negotiations on December 19, 2000. Envoy Erik Solheim of Norway facilitated negotiations between the parties. The Tamil National Alliance (TNA) was established on October 20, 2001. Two civilians were killed in a suicide bombing in Colombo on October 29, 2001. On October 30, 2001, Amnesty International (AI) condemned the LTTE for the suicide bombing in Colombo. The Tamil National Alliance (TNA) won 15 out of 225 seats in the Parliament of Sri Lanka in legislative elections held on December 5, 2001. The parties agreed to a one-month ceasefire beginning on December 25, 2001. The government and Tamil rebels agreed to a Norway-facilitated cessation of military hostilities on February 22, 2002. Some 29,000 individuals were killed, and some 500,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict between April 1995 and February 2002.
Post-Conflict Phase (February 23, 2002-December 5, 2005): The governments of Australia, Denmark, India, Japan, and the U.S., along with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), provided mine-clearing assessment and assistance to the government beginning on April 1, 2002. The governments of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland deployed the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission (SLMM) to monitor the ceasefire beginning on April 2, 2002. The SLMM consisted of a maximum of 60 military observers commanded by Major General Ulf Henricsson of Sweden. The Sri Lankan government lifted the ban on the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) on September 4, 2002. Sri Lankan government and LTTE representatives began negotiations in Sattahip, Thailand on September 15, 2002. The Japanese government appointed Yasushi Akashi as special envoy to Sri Lanka on October 25, 2002. The Australian government, the European Union (EU), Japanese government, Saudi Arabian government, U.S. government, and UNICEF provided humanitarian assistance to displaced individuals beginning in 2002. The Tamil National Alliance (TNA) won 22 out of 225 seats in the parliament of Sri Lanka in legislative elections held on April 2, 2004. Tamil rebels exploded a bomb at a government police station in Colombo on July 7, 2004, resulting in the deaths of four government police officers. The U.S. government condemned the Tamil rebels for the bombing on July 8, 2004. The Chinese government provided military assistance to the government beginning in 2005.
Conflict Phase (December 6, 2005-May 19, 2009): Tamil rebels resumed their insurgency against government troops on December 6, 2005. Some 53 government soldiers and sailors were killed by Tamils rebels between December 6, 2005 and January 12, 2006. The Norwegian government appointed Jon Hanssen-Bauer as Special Envoy to Sri Lanka on March 17, 2006. Sixty-four individuals were killed in a Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) bus attack in Anuradapura on June 15, 2006. Commonwealth of Nations (CoN) Secretary-General Don McKinnon condemned the LTTE attack on June 15, 2006. Government troops launched a military offensive against Tamil rebels near the Mavil Aru reservoir on July 26, 2006. On September 1, 2006, Major General Trond Furuhovde of Norway assumed command of the SLMM (with 20 monitors from Norway and Iceland). Sixteen individuals, mostly women and children, were killed in a LTTE bus bombing in Ampara District on April 2, 2007. Eighteen individuals were killed in LTTE bomb attacks in Colombo on November 28, 2007. Sixteen individuals were killed in a LTTE attack on a bus in the town of Anuradhapura on December 5, 2007. The U.S. government suspended military assistance to the government as a result of human rights concerns in December 2007. Five individuals were killed in a bombing in Colombo on January 2, 2008, and the government decided to formally withdraw from the 2002 ceasefire agreement with the LTTE. The SLMM was termined on January 16, 2008. Twenty-four individuals were killed in a LTTE bus bombing in Moneragala District on January 16, 2008. The U.S. government called for an immediate ceasefire on April 25, 2009. The LTTE declared a unilateral ceasefire, but the government rejected the ceasefire on April 27, 2009. Britain and France jointly appealed for a ceasefire on April 29, 2009. The governments of Britain and the U.S. jointly appealed for a ceasefire on May 12, 2009. Government troops killed Tamil rebel leader Velupillai Prabhakaran and defeated the Tamil rebellion on May 19, 2009. More than 28,000 individuals were killed during the conflict from December 2005 to May 2009, including 6,261 government soldiers and some 22,000 Tamil rebels.
Post-Conflict Phase (May 20, 2009-present): The Tamil National Alliance (TNA) won 14 out of 225 seats in the Parliament of Sri Lanka in legislative elections held on April 8, 2010. Local elections were held in northern Sri Lanka on July 23, 2011, and the Tamil National Alliance (TNA) took control of 18 out of 26 local councils.
[Sources: Amnesty International (AI) press release, December 20, 1999, January 28, 2000, October 2, 2000, October 30, 2001; Associated Press (AP), October 25, 1997, December 24, 1999, January 27, 2000, February 15, 2000, March 10, 2000, April 3, 2000, April 14, 2000, April 16, 2000, May 31, 2000, October 7, 2000, October 29, 2000, June 20, 2003; Banks and Muller, 1998, 861-868; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 207-208; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 560-561; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), July 22, 2003, May 27, 2004, July 9, 2004, October 28, 2004, December 1, 2004, January 23, 2006, April 21, 2006, June 9, 2007, April 25, 2009, April 27, 2009, April 29, 2009, May 12, 2009, May 16, 2009, May 17, 2009, May 19, 2009, July 23, 2011, July 24, 2011, August 25, 2011; Brogan, 1992, 244-253; Clodfelter, 1992, 1110-1111; Commonwealth of Nations (CoN) press release, June 15, 2006; European Union (EU) press release, May 29, 1995, November 15, 1995, February 6, 1996; Facts on File, August 27, 1977, September 3, 1977, December 31, 2001; International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) press release, February 2, 1996, November 26, 1997, December 9, 1998; Ispahani, 1992, 209-239; Jessup, 1998, 688-689; Kearney, 1978, 521-534; Keesing’s Record of World Events, October 15, 1976, January 26, 1979, June 13, 1980, September 25, 1981, August 6, 1982, January 1984, September 1984, May 1985, May 1986, January 1987, August 1987, September 1989, March 1990, June 1990, February 1991, April 1991, September 1991, October 1992, January 1995, April 1995, May 1995; Langer, 1972, 1318-1319; New York Times (NYT), July 7, 2004, June 18, 2006; O’Ballance, 1989; Peace Brigades International (PBI)press release, May 5, 1998; Reuters, September 16, 1997, December 7, 1999, December 14, 1999, December 24, 1999, January 16, 2000, January 27, 2000, March 9, 2000, March 10, 2000, March 11, 2000, December 16, 2000, December 19, 2000, February 7, 2002, February 22, 2002, March 7, 2002, April 2, 2002, August 14, 2002, August 15, 2002, September 15, 2002, November 3, 2002, January 8, 2003, July 8, 2003, January 16, 2008, April 26, 2009; Tillema, 1991, 238; US Committee for Refugees (USCR)press release, July 29, 1999; US Department of State press release, April 2, 2002; Washington Post, April 22, 2006; Weisburd, 1997, 232-234; Xinhua News Agency, March 17, 2006.]
Selected Bibliography
Bullion, Alan J. 1995. India, Sri Lank, and the Tamil Crisis, 1976-1994. London and New York: Pinter.
De Silva, K. M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Ispahani, Mahnaz. 1992. “India’s Role in Sri Lanka’s Ethnic Conflict.” In Levite, Ariel E. et al., editors. Foreign Military
Intervention: The Dynamics of Protracted Conflict. New York: Columbia University Press, 209-239.
Kearney, Robert N. 1978. “Language and the Rise of Tamil Separatism in Sri Lanka.” Asian Survey 20: 521-534.
O’Ballance, Edgar. 1989. The Cyanide War: Tamil Insurrection in Sri Lanka 1973-1988. London: Brassey’s Publishing.