Pre-Crisis Phase (October 10, 1970-May 13, 1987): Fiji achieved its independence from the United Kingdom and became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations (CON) on October 10, 1970. Parliamentary elections were held in March 1977, and the National Federation Party (NFP) won a majority of the seats in the House of Representative. Governor General Ratu Sir George Cakobau asked Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara to form an interim government after the NFP failed to form a government. Parliamentary elections were re-held in September 1977, and the Alliance Party (AP) headed by Prime Minister Mara won 36 out of 52 seats in the House of Representatives. Parliamentary elections were held in 1982, and the AP won 28 out of 52 seats in the House of Representatives. Prime Minister Mara proposed a “government of national unity,” but the proposal was rejected by the NFP led by Jai Ram Reddy. The Fijian Labour Party (FLP) was established by Dr. Timoci Bavadra in opposition to the AP-dominated government in July 1985. Governor-General Ratu Ganilau dissolved the parliament at the request of Prime Minister Ratu Kamisese Mara on December 18, 1986. Parliamentary elections were held on April 4-11, 1987, and the Fijian Labour Party-National Federation Party (FLP-NFP) coalition headed by Dr. Timoci Bavadra won 28 out of 52 seats in the parliament. The AP won 24 out of 52 seats in the parliament. Prime Minister Ratu Kamisese Mara, leader of the AP, conceded defeat and relinquished control of the government to the FLP-NFP coalition on April 14, 1987. Members of the opposition formed the Taukei Solidarity Movement against the government of Prime Minister Bavadra, and some 5,500 individuals demonstrated against the government in Suva on April 24, 1987.
Crisis Phase (May 14, 1987-July 27, 1998): Prime Minister Timoci Bavadra was overthrown in a military rebellion led by Lt. Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka on May 14, 1987. The parliament was dissolved, and a state-of-emergency was imposed on May 14, 1987. Lt. Colonel Rabuka called for the establishment of a Fijian-dominated government, but the military rebellion collapsed on May 20, 1987. The governments of Australia and India imposed diplomatic sanctions (non-recognition) against the government on May 24, 1987. The governments of New Zealand and the U.S. imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on May 24, 1987. Governor-General Ratu Penaia Ganilau appointed Ratu Kamisese Mara as provisional prime minister on May 25, 1987, and appointed Lt. Colonel Rabuka as commander-in-chief of the armed forces on May 29, 1987. Prime Minister Mara was overthrown in a military rebellion led by General Rabuka on September 25, 1987. General Rabuka suspended the 1970 constitution on October 1, 1987. India imposed economic sanctions (trade embargo) against Fiji in October 1987. General Rabuka proclaimed the Fiji Republic and withdrew from the CON on October 15, 1987. The government of New Zealand imposed military sanctions (termination of military assistance) and economic sanctions (reduction in economic assistance) against the government on October 19, 1987. Some 4,000 ethnic-Indians left the country. The government of Papua New Guinea provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on November 5, 1987. General Rabuka appointed Ratu Penaia Ganilau as president and Ratu Kamisese Mara as prime minister, and lifted the state-of-emergency on December 5, 1987. The Fiji government proposed a new constitution on September 23, 1988 that discriminated against ethnic Indians, and the constitution went into effect on July 25, 1990. The Fijian Political Party (Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei – SVT) headed by General Rabuka was established in October 1991. Parliamentary elections were held on May 23-30, 1992, and the SVT won 37 out of 70 seats in the House of Representatives. General Rabuka formed a government as prime minister on June 2, 1992. Ratu Kamisese Mara served as interim president during the incapacitation of President Ganilau from September 4 to December 4, 1992, and again from November 29 to December 15, 1993. President Ganilau died on December 15, 1993, and Sir Kamisese Mara was elected president by the Great Council of Chiefs on January 10, 1994. President Mara dissolved the parliament on January 19, 1994. Parliamentary elections were held on February 18-25, 1994, and the SVT won 31 out of 70 seats in the House of Representatives. Prime Minister Rabuka formed a government on February 28, 1994. On July 25, 1997, President Mara signed the Constitutional Amendment Bill that struck provisions of the 1990 constitution legalizing discrimination against ethnic Indians. Fiji rejoined the CON on October 1, 1997. India lifted economic sanctions against Fiji on February 27, 1998. A new constitution went into effect on July 27, 1998.
Post-Crisis Phase (July 28, 1998-May 18, 2000): Parliamentary elections were held on May 8-15, 1999, and the Fiji Labour Party (FLP) headed by Mahendra Chaudhry won 37 out of 71 seats in the parliament. The Fijian Association Party (FAP) won ten seats in the parliament. Prime Minister Rabuka submitted his resignation on May 18, 1999, and Mahendra Chaudhry formed a coalition government as prime minister on May 21, 1999.
Crisis Phase (May 19, 2000-December 21, 2001): George Speight led a Fiji nationalist rebellion against the government of Prime Minister Chaudhry beginning on May 19, 2000. President Mara declared a state-of-emergency on May 19, 2000. CON Secretary-General Don McKinnon condemned the rebellion, and expressed support for Prime Minister Chaudhry on May 19, 2000. Foreign Secretary Robin Cook of Britain condemned the rebellion on May 19, 2000. The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) condemned the rebellion on May 19, 2000. United Nations (UN) Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Sergio Vieira de Mello as special envoy to Fiji on May 22, 2000. President Mara dismissed the government of Prime Minister Chaudhry on May 27, 2000. Foreign Secretary Robin Cook of Britain appealed for peaceful negotiations on May 28, 2000. Fiji nationalist rebels killed one government policeman in Suva on May 28, 2000. President Mara was overthrown by Commodore Frank Bainamarama, head of the armed forces, on May 29, 2000. Commodore Bainamarama declared martial law on May 29, 2000. The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) condemned the overthrow of President Mara by Commodore Bainamarama on May 29, 2000. Commodore Bainamarama suspended the constitution on May 30, 2000. Commodore Bainamarama appointed Ratu Epeli Nailatikau as interim prime minister on May 31, 2000. The CON imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the government on June 6, 2000. Fiji nationalist rebels led by George Speight freed former Prime Minister Chaudhry and 17 other individuals as hostages on July 13, 2000. The parliament elected Ratu Josefa Iliolo as president on July 13, 2000. The governments of Australia and New Zealand imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on July 18, 2000. Government troops arrested George Speight and several Fiji nationalist rebels on July 26-27, 2000. President Iloilo appointed Laisenia Qarase of the Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua (SDL) as interim prime minister on July 28, 2000. Fiji nationalist rebels killed one government soldier and one government policeman near Suva on August 8, 2000. The government charged George Speight with treason on August 11, 2000. Government troops and Fiji nationalist rebels clashed in Suva on November 2-3, 2000, resulting in the deaths of five rebels and four government soldiers. Government troops captured eleven Fiji nationalist rebels in Suva on November 3, 2000. CON Secretary-General Don McKinnon appointed Pius Langa of South Africa as special envoy to Fiji on December 1, 2000. On December 20, 2000, Fiji’s High Court ruled that the government of Prime Minister Qarase was illegal. Ratu Kamisese Mara, who was overthrown as president on May 29, 2000, formally resigned as president on December 20, 2000. The Fiji Court of Appeals ruled the military government as illegal on March 1, 2001. The UN General Assembly established the United Nations Fijian Electoral Observation Mission (UNFEOM) on July 25, 2001. UNFEOM consisted of 40 observers from 18 countries. Parliamentary elections were held on August 25-September 1, 2001, and the SDL won a plurality of 32 seats out of 71 seats in the House of Representatives. The FLP won 27 seats in the House of Representatives. The European Union (EU) sent three observers to monitor the parliamentary elections. The CON sent twelve observers from six countries headed by Sir Henry Forde from Barbados to monitor the parliamentary elections. Laisenia Qarase of the SDL formed a government as prime minister on September 10, 2001. Australia lifted economic sanctions against the government on October 5, 2001. The CON lifted diplomatic sanctions against the government on December 21, 2001, and New Zealand lifted economic sanctions against the government on December 21, 2001. At least 15 individuals were killed during the crisis.
Post-Crisis Phase (December 22, 2001-July 11, 2005): George Speight was sentenced to death by the High Court, but President Ratu Josefa Iloilo immediately commuted the sentence to life imprisonment on February 18, 2002. A military court found 15 soldiers guilty of mutiny on November 6, 2002. Captain Shane Nailatikau Stevens, leader of the failed military mutiny in November 2000, was sentenced to death by a military court on November 14, 2002.
Crisis Phase (July 12, 2005-October 6, 2007): On July 12, 2005, Commodore Frank Bainimarama, commander of the military forces of Fiji, warned the government of Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase against pardoning those individuals involved in the May 2000 rebellion. Commodore Bainimarama issued threats against Home Affairs Minister Josefa Vosanibola on December 22, 2005. On December 31, 2005, Commodore Bainimarama declared that he no longer recognized Home Affairs Minister Vosanibola as the minister in charge of the military forces. Commodore Bainimarama called upon the government of Prime Minister Qarase to resign on January 3, 2006. Vice-President (and Acting President) Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi brokered negotiations between Prime Minister Qarase and Commodore Bainimarama between January 16 and February 27, 2006. On March 2, 2006, Vice-President (and Acting President) Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi dissolved the parliament effective on March 27, 2006. Parliamentary elections were held on May 6-13, 2006, and the SDL won 36 out of 71 seats in the House of Representatives. The FLP won 31 seats in the House of Representatives. The CON sent six short-term observers (and three staff members) headed by K. D. Knight of Jamaica to monitor the parliamentary elections from April 30 to May 21, 2006. The European Union (EU) sent 10 long-term observers and 30 short-term observers headed by Istvan Szent-Ivanyi of Hungary to monitor the parliamentary elections from April 10 to June 10, 2006. The Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) sent 25 observers to monitor the parliamentary elections May 1 to May 18, 2006. Commodore Bainimarama criticized the government of Prime Minister Qarase on September 22, 2006, and Prime Minister Qarase suggested that Commodore Bainimarama’s criticisms were unconstitutional on September 23, 2006. Commodore Bainimarama issued a three-week ultimatum for the government of Prime Minister Qarase to meet nine demands or to resign. On October 31, 2006, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo attempted to dismiss Commodore Bainimarama, but senior Fijian military leaders backed Commodore Bainimarama. On November 26, 2006, Commodore Bainimarama demanded the withdrawal of three controversial bills from the parliament, including a bill to pardon those individuals involved in the May 2000 rebellion against the government. Commodore Bainimarama gave the prime minister until December 1, 2006 to accede to his demands or to resign from office. Foreign Minister Winston Peters of New Zealand facilitated negotiations between Prime Minister Qarase and Commodore Bainimarama on November 28, 2006. The government of Prime Minister Qarase was deposed in a military coup led by Commodore Frank Bainimarama on December 5, 2006. Commodore Bainimarama appointed Jona Senilagakali as prime minister on December 5, 2006. The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) condemned the military coup on December 5, 2006. CON Secretary-General Don McKinnon condemned the military coup on December 5, 2006. Commodore Bainimarama declared a state-of-emergency on December 6, 2006. Prime Minister John Howard of Australia, Prime Minister Helen Clark of New Zealand, Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr of Norway, Foreign Secretary Margaret Beckett of Britain, and UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan condemned the military coup on December 6, 2006. The government of New Zealand imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) and military sanctions (travel ban on military officers) against the government on December 6, 2006. The Australian government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) and military sanctions (travel ban on military personnel) against the government on December 6, 2006. The U.S. government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) and military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government on December 6, 2006. The British government imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government on December 6, 2006. The Great Council of Chiefs condemned the military coup on December 7, 2006. The European Commission (EC) condemned the military coup on December 8, 2006. The CON imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the government on December 8, 2006. Commodore Bainimarama re-instated President Ratu Josefa Iloilo and named himself as prime minister on January 4, 2007. Commodore Bainimarama lifted the state of emergency on May 31, 2007. Commodore Bainimarama re-imposed the state of emergency on September 6, 2007, which was condemned by Foreign Minister Winston Peters of New Zealand, the U.S., EU, and CON. Commodore Bainimarama lifted the state of emergency on October 6, 2007.
Post-Crisis Phase (October 7, 2007-April 9, 2009): On April 9, 2009, the Fiji Court of Appeals ruled that the 2006 military coup was unconstitutional, ordered the removal of Commodore Bainimarama as prime minister, and called for the appointment of an interim prime minister.
Crisis Phase (April 10, 2009-January 7, 2012): On April 10, 2009, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo declared a state of emergency and suspended the 1997 Constitution. On April 11, 2009, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo re-instated Commodore Bainimarama as interim prime minister. The UN Security Council condemned the military government on April 21, 2009. On May 1, 2009, the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the military government. On July 31, 2009, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo retired and was replaced by Vice-President Epeli Nailatikau. The CON imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the military government on September 1, 2009. The governments of Australia and New Zealand severed diplomatic relations with Fiji on November 3, 2009. The military government lifted the state of emergency on January 7, 2012.
Post-Crisis Phase (January 8, 2012-present): The governments of Australia and New Zealand restored full diplomatic relations with Fiji on July 31, 2012. President Ratu Epeli Nailatikau signed a new constitution into law, which gave Indo-Fijians equal rights and eliminated the hereditary role of the Great Council of Chiefs, on September 6, 2013. On September 12, 2013, the government of New Zealand lifted some of the economic sanctions that had been imposed on Fiji in 2006. Parliamentary elections were held on September 17, 2014, and the Fiji First party won 32 out of 50 seats in the parliament. The Social Democratic Liberal Party (SDLP) won 15 seats in the parliament. The Multinational Observer Group (MOG), which consisted of 92 observers from 13 countries and the European (EU), monitored the parliamentary elections. Frank Bainimarama was sworn in as prime minister on September 22, 2014. The CON lifted diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the Fiji government on September 26, 2014, and the PIF lifted diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the Fiji government on October 24, 2014. On October 31, 2014, the Australian and U.S. governments lifted all remaining economic and military sanctions that had been imposed on Fiji in 2006. Parliamentary elections were held on November 14, 2018, and the Fiji First party won 27 out of 51 seats in the parliament. The SDLP won 21 seats in the parliament. The MOG, which consisted of 77 short-term and long-term observers from Australia, India, Indonesia, and ten other countries, monitored the parliamentary elections from September 20 to November 21, 2018.
[Sources: Agence France Presse (AFP), October 24, 2014; Associated Press (AP), May 17, 1999, May 22, 2000, May 23, 2000, May 27, 2000, May 29, 2000, July 13, 2000, July 28, 2000, August 8, 2000, December 21, 2000, August 29, 2001, September 21, 2014; Australian Network News (ANN), September 6, 2013; Banks and Muller, 1998, 310-314; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), December 21, 2001, November 30, 2006, December 3, 2006, December 4, 2006, December 5, 2006, December 7, 2006, December 8, 2006, December 20, 2006, January 4, 2007, May 31, 2007, September 7, 2007, October 5, 2007, April 9, 2009, April 10, 2009, April 11, 2009, April 21, 2009, May 1, 2009, September 1, 2009, January 1, 2012, January 2, 2012, July 30, 2012, March 28, 2014, September 17, 2014, September 22, 2014, October 31, 2014; Brogan, 1992, 532-534; Cable News Network (CNN) September 9, 2001; Christian Science Monitor, July 3, 2001; Commonwealth of Nations (CON), May 19, 2000, December 1, 2000, August 6, 2001, April 26, 2006, December 5, 2006, September 1, 2009; European Commission (EC), December 8, 2006; European Union (EU), May 18, 2006; Facts on File, October 25, 2001; International Commission of Jurists (ICJ), May 29, 2000; Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), May 19, 2000, December 5, 2006; Jessup, 1998, 209-210; Keesing’s Record of World Events, July 1987, December 1987, March 1988, May 1992, December 1993, January 1994, February 1994, July 1997, September 1997, March 1998, July 1998, May 1999; New York Times, May 21, 2000, July 10, 2000, December 4, 2006, December 6, 2006, January 7, 2012, July 2, 2012, August 3, 2012, January 11, 2013, September 17, 2014; Reuters, May 18, 1999, May 21, 1999, May 19, 2000, May 20, 2000, May 21, 2000, May 29, 2000, May 30, 2000, May 31, 2000, July 13, 2000, July 27, 2000, July 28, 2000, August 8, 2000, November 2, 2000, November 3, 2000, December 1, 2000, December 20, 2000, March 1, 2001, April 5, 2001, July 11, 2001, August 29, 2001, August 31, 2001, September 3, 2001, September 8, 2001, February 18, 2002, November 6, 2002, November 14, 2002, December 5, 2006, April 11, 2009, September 1, 2009, November 3, 2009, September 19, 2014, September 22, 2014, October 31, 2014; The Australian, December 6, 2006; The Guardian, December 6, 2006; The Hindu (India), September 4, 2001; United Nations (UN), May 22, 2000, July 25, 2001, September 10, 2001; Voice of America (VOA), September 18, 2014.]
Selected Bibliography:
Lal, Brij V. 1988. “Before the Storm: An Analysis of the Fiji General Election of 1987.” Pacific Studies 12 (November): 71-
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