Crisis Phase (January 5, 1946-March 21, 1990): The government of the Republic of China formally recognized the independence of Mongolia on January 5, 1946. The governments of Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance on February 27, 1946, which provided for continued Soviet military presence in Mongolia. The governments of the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China reaffirmed the independence of Mongolia in an agreement signed on February 4, 1950. Legislative elections were held on June 10, 1951, and the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won 176 out of 295 seats in the parliament. Prime Minister Khorloogiin Choibalsan died in Moscow, Soviet Union on January 26, 1952. Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal was elected as Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) on January 28, 1952. Dashiin Damba was elected as General-Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP on April 4, 1954. Legislative elections were held on June 13, 1954, and the MPRP won 178 out of 233 seats in the parliament. Soviet troops were withdrawn from Mongolia in 1956. The Chinese government agreed to provide economic assistance to the Mongolian government on August 29, 1956. The government of the Soviet Union agreed to provided economic assistance to the Mongolian government on May 15, 1957. Legislative elections were held on June 16, 1957, and the MPRP won 192 out of 295 seats in the parliament. The General-Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP, Dashiin Damba, was dismissed, and Prime Minister Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal was elected as General-Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP on November 22, 1958. Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai visited Ulan Bator on May 27-June 1, 1960, promising a loan of some 200 million rubles to the Mongolian government. The governments of the People’s Republic of China and Mongolia signed the Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance on May 31, 1960. Legislative elections were held on June 19, 1960, and the MPRP won 207 out of 267 seats in the parliament. A new Mongolian constitution was promulgated on July 6, 1960. The government of the Soviet Union agreed to provided additional economic assistance to the Mongolian government on September 9, 1958. The governments of the People’s Republic of China and Mongolia signed a border treaty in Beijing on December 26, 1962. Legislative elections were held on June 9, 1963, and the MPRP won 216 out of 270 seats in the parliament. Legislative elections were held on June 26, 1966, and the MPRP won 234 out of 287 seats in the parliament. Legislative elections were held on June 22, 1969, and the MPRP won 252 out of 297 seats in the parliament. Legislative elections were held on June 24, 1973, and the MPRP won 282 out of 336 seats in the parliament. Jambyn Batmönkh was appointed as Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government), and Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal was elected as Chairman of the Presidium of the People’s Great Khural (head of state) on June 11, 1974. Legislative elections were held on June 19, 1977, and the MPRP won 328 out of 354 seats in the parliament. Some 65,000 Soviet troops were stationed in Mongolia in 1980. Legislative elections were held on June 21, 1981, and the MPRP won 344 out of 370 seats in the parliament. General-Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP and President Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal retired on August 23, 1984. Jambyn Batmönkh was elected as General-Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP on August 24, 1984, and he was chosen as Chairman of the Presidium of the People’s Grand Khural (head of state) on December 12, 1984. Dumaagiin Sodnom was appointed as Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government) on December 12, 1984. Legislative elections were held on June 22, 1986, and the MPRP won 346 out of 370 seats in the parliament. On January 15, 1987, the government of the Soviet Union announced that it would withdraw one of five military divisions (65,000 military personnel) stationed in Mongolia. On March 7, 1989, the government of the Soviet Union announced that it would withdraw some 50,000 troops, 5,000 tanks, 1,000 trucks, 820 artillery systems, 190 aircraft, and 130 helicopters from Mongolia within two years. Soviet troops, along with military equipment, began their withdrawal from Mongolia on May 15, 1989. Pro-democracy demonstrations led by Zorig Sanjaasuren took place in Ulan Bator beginning on December 10, 1989. The pro-democracy Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU) was established in Ulan Bator on December 10, 1989. The MDU called for a democratic revolution on January 2, 1990. On March 3, 1990, the government of the Soviet Union announced that it would withdraw its remaining military forces from Mongolia by 1992. The MDU launched a hunger strike on March 7, 1990, and Jambyn Batmönkh resigned as General-Secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP on March 14, 1990. Sharavyn Gundaadorj was appointed as prime minister, and Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat, Minister of Foreign Trade, was chosen as President by the parliament on March 21, 1990.
Post-Crisis Phase (March 22, 1990-June 30, 2008): On May 14, 1990, the Mongolian government and opposition groups agreed to hold legislative elections. Legislative elections were held on June 22 and June 29, 1990, and the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won 358 out of 430 seats in the State Grand Khural (Ulsyn Ikh Khural). Japanese Prime Minister Toshiki Kaifu offered foreign assistance (emergency assistance and development assistance) to the Mongolian government on August 13, 1991. The Mongolian Democratic Party (MDP) won 17 seats in the State Grand Khural. Legislative elections were held on June 28, 1992, and the MPRP won 70 out of 76 seats in the State Grand Khural. The Alliance won four seats in the State Grand Khural. Puntsagiin Jasrai of the MPRP was elected as prime minister by the State Grand Khural on July 21, 1992. Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat of the Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP) – Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP) was elected president with 60 percent of the vote on June 6, 1993. The International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) sent three observers to monitor the presidential election. Legislative elections were held on June 30, 1996, and the Democratic Union (DU) led by Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj won 50 out of 76 seats in the State Grant Khural. The MPRP won 25 seats in the State Grand Khural. The Asia Foundation sent six observers led by former Secretary of State James A. Baker and Senator Charles “Chuck” Robb to monitor the legislative elections. Mendsaikhany Enkhsaikhan was appointed as prime minister on July 7, 1996. Mendsaikhany Enkhsaikhan of the MDP was elected prime minister by the State Grand Khural on July 19, 1996. Natsagiin Bagabandi of the MPRP was elected president with 63 percent of the vote on May 18, 1997. The Mongolian parliament approved the resignation of the government of Prime Minister Mendsaikhany Enkhsaikhan on April 22, 1998, and Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj of the MDP was elected prime minister by the State Grand Khural on April 23, 1998. Prime Minister Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj and his cabinet resigned on July 24, 1998. Zorig Sanjaasuren, Minister of Infrastructure, was murdered in Ulan Bator on October 2, 1998. Janlavyn Narantsatsralt of the MDP was elected prime minister by the State Grand Khural on December 9, 1998. Prime Minister Janlavyn Narantsatsralt resigned on July 22, 1999, and Rinchinnyamiin Amarjargal of the MDP was elected as prime minister by the State Grand Khural on July 30, 1999. Legislative elections were held on July 2, 2000, and the MPRP won 72 out of 76 seats in the State Grand Khural. The Democratic Union (DU) won one seat in the State Grand Khural. Prime Minister Rinchinnyamiin Amarjargal resigned, and Nambaryn Enkhbayar of the MPRP was elected prime minister by the State Grand Khural on July 26, 2000. President Natsagiin Bagabandi of the MPRP was re-elected with 59 percent of the vote on May 20, 2001. Legislative elections were held on June 27, 2004, and the MPRP won 36 seats in the State Grand Khural. The Motherland Democratic Coalition (MDC) won 34 seats in the State Grand Khural. Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj of the MDP was elected prime minister of a coalition government by the State Grand Khural on August 20, 2004. Nambaryn Enkhbayar of the MPRP was elected president with 54 percent of the vote on May 22, 2005, and he was inaugurated as president on June 24, 2005. The MPRP withdrew from the coalition government on January 11, 2006, and the State Grand Khural voted to dissolve the coalition government headed by Prime Minister Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj on January 13, 2006. Miyeegombyn Enkhbold of the MPRP was elected as prime minister by the State Grand Khural on January 26, 2006. Prime Minister Miyeegombyn Enkhbold resigned, and Sanjaagiin Bayar of the MPRP was elected as prime minister by the State Grand Khural on November 22, 2007. Legislative elections were held on June 29, 2008, and the MPRP won 45 out of 76 seats in the State Grand Khural. The MDP won 28 seats in the State Grand Khural.
Crisis Phase (July 1, 2008-August 28, 2008): On July 1, 2008, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, leader of the MDP, claimed election fraud. Anti-government protesters clashed with government police on July 1-2, 2008, resulting in the deaths of five individuals. President Nambaryn Enkhbayar imposed a state of emergency on July 2-5, 2008. Members of the MDP in the State Grand Khural walked out during the opening session on July 23, 2008, but members of the MDP in the State Grand Khural were sworn into office on August 28, 2008.
Post-Crisis Phase (August 29, 2008-present): Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj of the MDP was elected president with 51 percent of the vote on May 24, 2009, and he was inaugurated as president on June 18, 2009. The Asia Foundation (AF) sent 54 observers, including 22 observers from the U.S. embassy in Ulan Bator, to monitor the presidential election. Prime Minister Sanjaagiin Bayar resigned, and Foreign Minister Sükhbaataryn Batbold of the MPRP was elected as prime minister by the State Grand Khural on October 29, 2009. The MPRP was renamed the Mongolian People’s Party (MPP) in 2010. Legislative elections were held on June 28, 2012, and the MDP won 31 out of 76 seats in the State Grand Khural. The MPP won 25 seats in the State Grand Khural. Former president Nambaryn Enkhbayar was arrested and detained by government police on charges of corruption on April 13, 2012, but he was released on bail on May 14, 2012. Former president Nambaryn Enkhbayar was convicted of corruption and sentenced to four years in prison on August 2, 2012. Norovyn Altankhuyag of the MDP was elected prime minister by the State Grand Khural on August 10, 2012. President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj of the MDP was re-elected with 51 percent of the vote on June 26, 2013, and he was inaugurated for a second term as president on July 10, 2013. The Organization for Security and Cooperation (OSCE)/Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) sent 14 election experts, 24 long-term observers, and 210 short-term observers led by Ambassador Audrey Glover of the United Kingdom to monitor the presidential election from May 10 to June 27, 2013. President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj pardoned former president Nambaryn Enkhbayar on August 1, 2013.
[Sources; Agence France Presse (AFP), July 5, 2008: Associated Press (AP), May 15, 1989; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), April 22, 1998, April 24, 1998, July 24, 1998, December 9, 1998, July 30, 1999, July 3, 2000, July 19, 2000, April 20, 2001, May 21, 2001, June 27, 2004, June 28, 2004, June 30, 2004, March 29, 2005, May 23, 2005, January 12, 2006, January 13, 2006, January 16, 2006, January 17, 2006, July 1, 2008, July 2, 2008, July 3, 2008, July 5, 2008, May 25, 2009, October 29, 2009, April 13, 2012, August 3, 2012, June 25, 2013, June 27, 2013; Christian Science Monitor (CSM), October 21, 1986; Los Angeles Times (LAT), March 3, 1990; New York Times (NYT), January 16, 1987, March 15, 1990, March 22, 1990, August 1, 1990, August 14, 1991, July 1, 1992, July 3, 1996, May 20, 1997, October 4, 1998; Organization for Security and Cooperation (OSCE)/Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) report, September 18, 2013.]
Selected Bibliography
Friters, Gerard M. 1974. Outer Mongolia and its International Position. New York: Octagon Books.
Mikhalev, Alexey V. 2013. “Soviet Experts in Mongolia: Between International Mission and Colonial Practices,” Sensus Historiae, vol. 10, pp. 177-194.
Murphy, George G. S. 1966. Soviet Mongolia: A Study of the Oldest Political Satellite. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA:
University of California Press.
Sanders, A. J. K. 1968. The People’s Republic of Mongolia. London and New York: Oxford University Press.