Crisis Phase (January 1, 1964-April 27, 1966): On January 1, 1964, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was dissolved. Southern Rhodesia had previously joined Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland on August 1, 1953. Joshua Nkomo, a prominent African nationalist, was arrested by government police on February 18, 1964. On April 13, 1964, Ian Smith succeeded Winston Field as prime minister of Southern Rhodesia and leader of the Rhodesian Front (RF). On April 16, 1964, Joshua Nkomo was arrested by government police, along with several other African nationalists, and sent to a detention camp in southern Rhodesia. Government police clashed with protesters in Salisbury, Bulawayo, and other locations on April 16-18, 1964. African nationalists ambushed and killed Pieter Johan Andries Oberholzer, a foreman at the Silverstreams Wattle Company, on July 4, 1964. Prime Minister Ian Smith ordered the arrest and detention of the leaders of the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), including the Reverend Ndabaningi and Robert Mugabe, on August 26, 1964. Prime Minister Smith Ian requested independence for Southern Rhodesia during meetings in London on September 7-10, 1964. Prime Minister Harold Wilson of the United Kingdom warned against a unilateral declaration of independence by Southern Rhodesia on October 27, 1964. White residents of Southern Rhodesia voted overwhelmingly for independence from the United Kingdom in a referendum on November 5, 1964. Black residents of Southern Rhodesia boycotted the referendum. On November 12, 1964, the Rhodesian appeals court ruled that it was illegal for the government to hold Joshua Nkomo and 16 other African nationalists in prison without trial. On November 16, 1964, Joshua Nkomo and 16 other African nationalists were released from prison in Gweru (Gwelo) and moved to the Gonakudzingwa detention camp near the Mozambique border. On December 7, 1964, the Rhodesia parliament approved a bill making possession of a bomb punishable by death or up to 20 years in prison. The Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), the military wing of the ZAPU, was established by Jason Ziyaphapha Moyo in Zambia 1964. Parliamentary elections were held on May 7, 1965, and the RF won 50 out of 65 seats in the House of Assembly. The National People’s Party (NPP) won ten seats in the House of Assembly. Prime Minister Smith demanded independence for Southern Rhodesia during meetings in London on October 4-8, 1965, but the British government refused the demand for independence. Prime Minister Ian Smith unilaterally declared Southern Rhodesia’s independence on November 11, 1965. The United Nations (UN) General Assembly condemned the Rhodesian government on November 11, 1965. The U.S. government condemned the Rhodesian government, and imposed diplomatic sanctions (non-recognition) against the Rhodesian government on November 11, 1965. The Canadian government refused to recognize the independence of Rhodesia on November 11, 1965. The Zambian government mobilized troops near the border with Rhodesia on November 12-24, 1965. The governments of India and Ceylon imposed diplomatic sanctions (non-recognition) against the Rhodesian government on November 12, 1965. The governments of West Germany, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Israel, Japan, and Turkey imposed diplomatic sanctions (non-recognition) against the Rhodesian government. The UN Security Council condemned the Rhodesian government on November 12 and November 19, 1965. The Australian government imposed diplomatic sanctions (non-recognition) against the Rhodesian government on November 16, 1965. The UN Security Council imposed military sanctions (voluntary arms embargo) and economic sanctions (oil embargo) against the Rhodesian government on November 20, 1965. The British government imposed economic sanctions (assets freeze) against the Rhodesian government on December 3, 1965, and the British government imposed additional economic sanctions (trade restrictions) against the Rhodesian government on December 12, 1965. The British government imposed additional economic sanctions (oil embargo) against the Rhodesian government on December 17, 1965. The Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of the ZANU, was established in Tanzania in 1965. The government of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) provided military assistance (military training) to ZANU, while the government of the Soviet Union provided military assistance (military training) to ZAPU. The U.S. government imposed economic sanctions against the Rhodesian government on March 18, 1966.
Conflict Phase (April 28, 1966-December 21, 1979): Rhodesian government troops attacked ZANLA rebels in Sinoia (Chinhoyi) on April 28, 1966, resulting in the deaths of seven ZANLA rebels. ZANLA rebels killed two white Rhodesian farmers near Hartley (Chegutu) on May 16, 1966. On December 1-3, 1966, Prime Minister Wilson of Britain and Prime Minister Ian Smith met on a warship off Gibraltar to discuss the matter of Rhodesian independence, but the parties failed to come to an agreement. The UN Security Council imposed military sanctions (mandatory arms embargo) and economic sanctions (selective trade restrictions and oil embargo) against the Rhodesian government on December 16, 1966. ZIPRA rebels, along with South African insurgents, clashed with Rhodesian government troops near Wankie (Hwange) in northwestern Rhodesia from August 13 to mid-September 1967, resulting in the deaths of some 25 ZIPRA rebels, 25 ANC insurgents, and eight Rhodesian military personnel. The South African government deployed 2,000 paramilitary police in support of the Rhodesian government beginning in August 1967. ZIPRA rebels, along with South African insurgents, clashed with Rhodesian government troops in Sipolilo district from March 18 to April 10, 1968, resulting in the deaths of 55 ZIPRA rebels, 23 South African insurgents, and eight Rhodesian military personnel. The UN Security Council imposed mandatory economic sanctions (comprehensive trade restrictions) against the Rhodesian government on May 29, 1968. The U.S. government imposed economic sanctions (trade embargo) against the Rhodesian government on May 29, 1968. ZAPU rebels clashed with Rhodesian government troops (as well as South African paramilitary policemen) on July 12-13, 1968, resulting in the deaths of at least 39 rebels and one South African paramilitary personnel. Prime Minister Wilson and Prime Minister Smith met again on a warship off Gibraltar from October 9 to October 13, 1968, but again failed to come to an agreement. A draft constitution for Rhodesia was approved in a referendum held on June 20, 1969, and the constitution went into effect on September 11, 1969. Prime Minister Ian Smith proclaimed the Republic of Rhodesia, and Clifford Dupont was chosen as acting president on March 2, 1970. The government of the Soviet Union condemned the Rhodesian government on March 7, 1970. On March 17, 1970, the U.S. and British governments vetoed a resolution in the UN Security Council that would have imposed additional mandatory sanctions against the Rhodesian government. Parliamentary elections were held on April 10, 1970, and the RF won 50 out of 66 seats in the House of Assembly. The Rhodesia Electoral Union (REU) won eight seats in the House of Assembly. Clifford Dupont was elected as president by the House of Assembly on April 14, 1970. The Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe (FROLIZI) was established by dissident members of the ZAPU and ZANU on October 1, 1970. The African National Council (ANC) led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa was established on December 16, 1971. After three Zambians were killed by landmines near the border with Rhodesia on January 11, 1973, the Zambian government mobilized troops along the border on January 12, 1973. The Kenyan government condemned the Rhodesian government on January 12, 1973. The Egyptian government condemned the Rhodesian government on January 23, 1973. Three more Zambians were killed by landmines near the border on January 26, 1973, and the UN Security Council condemned the Rhodesian government on February 2, 1973. On May 22, 1973, the U.S. and British governments vetoed a resolution in the UN Security Council to extend mandatory sanctions against the Rhodesian government. Some 179 rebels, 44 Rhodesian military personnel, and twelve white civilians were killed in clashes in Rhodesia in 1973. Parliamentary elections were held on July 30, 1974, and the RF won 50 out of 66 seats in the House of Assembly. The ANC boycotted the parliamentary elections. Prime Minister John Vorster of South Africa and President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia attempted to mediate between the parties from December 1974 to August 1975. The Zambian government hosted negotiations involving representatives of the Rhodesian government, ZAPU, ZANU, FROLIZI, and ANC in Lusaka, Zambia on December 8-9,1974. On December 9, 1974, the leaders of the four African nationalist groups (ZAPU, ZANU, FROLIZI, and ANC) signed the Lusaka Declaration, providing for the establishment of the Rhodesian political party United African National Council (UANC) headed by Bishop Abel Muzorewa. Niall MacDermot, secretary-general of the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ), conducted a fact-finding mission in Rhodesia on October 17-23, 1975. The ICJ issued a report on December 17, 1975. John Wrathall was inaugurated as president on January 14, 1976. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger attempted to mediate negotiations between the parties from April 25, 1976 to September 24, 1976, when Prime Minister Ian Smith announced that he accepted Henry Kissinger’s proposal for majority rule in Rhodesia within two years. Rhodesian government troops attacked a ZANLA rebel base near Nyadzonya, Mozambique on August 9, 1976, resulting in the deaths of 1,028 individuals. ZANU and ZAPU rebel military units merged to form the Patriotic Front (PF) on October 9, 1976. The British government mediated negotiations involving representatives of the Rhodesian government, ZANU, ZAPU, FROLIZI, and ANC in Geneva, Switzerland from October 28 to December 14, 1976. The Organization of Front Line States (OFLS) decided to provide military assistance to PF rebels on January 9, 1977. Rhodesian troops and PF rebels clashed near Chiredzi in southeast Rhodesia on May 9, 1977, resulting in the deaths of 35 civilians and one rebel. On May 30, 1977, Rhodesia government troops attacked ZANLA rebels in Mapai, Mozambique, resulting in the deaths of 32 ZANLA rebels and one Rhodesian military personnel. The UN secretary-general and the governments of the U.S., United Kingdom, and Soviet Union condemned the Rhodesian government on June 1, 1977. The UN Security Council condemned the Rhodesian government on June 30, 1977. Rhodesian military aircraft attacked ZAPU rebels near Feira, Zambia on August 31, 1977. Parliamentary elections were held on August 31, 1977, and the RF won 50 out of 66 seats in the House of Assembly. On September 29, 1977, the UN Security Council approved a resolution calling upon the UN secretary-general to appoint a UN Special Representative to assist in “the transition to majority rule in Southern Rhodesia.” On October 3, 1977, Lt. General Dewan Prem Chand of India was appointed as UN Special Representative to Rhodesia. Rhodesian government troops attacked ZANLA rebels near Chimoio and Tembue, Mozambique on November 23-25, 1977, resulting in the deaths of more than 3,000 ZANLA rebels and two Rhodesian military personnel. Rhodesian government troops attacked ZAPU rebels in Gwembe Valley in Zambia on January 30-31, 1978, resulting in the deaths of some 50 individuals. Rhodesian government troops attacked ZAPU rebels in Gwembe Valley in Zambia on February 7, 1978, resulting in the deaths of some 50 rebels and eight Zambian government soldiers. On March 3, 1978, Prime Minister Ian Smith and Bishop Abel Muzorewa of the UANC signed an agreement providing for African majority rule. Rhodesian government troops attacked a ZAPU base in Luangwa District in Zambia on March 6-8, 1978, resulting in the deaths of 42 ZAPU rebels, ten Zambian government soldiers, and one Rhodesian government soldier. The UN secretary-general and the Kenyan government condemned the Rhodesian government on March 8, 1978. On March 17, 1978, the UN Security Council condemned Rhodesia’s recent attacks against ZAPU rebel bases in Zambia. A three-member Executive Council consisting of Prime Minister Smith, Bishop Muzorewa, Chief Jeremiah Chirau, and Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole was established on March 21, 1978. The government lifted the ban on the ZAPU and ZANU on May 2, 1978. Three International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) personnel were killed by PF rebels on May 18, 1978. Rhodesian government troops and PF rebels clashed near Dombashawa on June 10, 1978, resulting in the deaths of 22 civilians. OAU foreign ministers expressed support for PF rebels on July 18, 1978, and OAU heads-of-state expressed support for PF rebels on July 22, 1978. Rhodesian government troops attacked ZAPU rebels in Zambia on July 23, 1978, resulting in the deaths of some 150 individuals. The World Council of Churches (WCC) provided humanitarian assistance to the PF on August 10, 1978. President John Wrathall died on August 31, 1978, and Lt. Colonel Henry Everard became acting-president on September 1, 1978. The government imposed martial law in parts of the country beginning on September 10, 1978. Rhodesian government troops and military aircraft attacked several ZAPU bases near Lusaka, Zambia on October 19-21, 1978, resulting in the deaths of at least 226 ZAPU rebels, 37 Zambian soldiers, and one Rhodesian military personnel. The government of India condemned the Rhodesian government on October 24, 1978, and the government of Angola condemned the Rhodesian government on October 26, 1978. President Wrathall resigned on November 1, 1978, and Jack Pithey became acting-president on November 2, 1978. The Swedish government decided to provide additional humanitarian assistance to ZANU and ZAPU on November 10, 1978. The UN General Assembly approved a resolution condemning the transitional Rhodesian government on December 13, 1978. A new constitution was approved by the National Assembly on January 20, 1979, and the constitution was approved in a referendum on January 30, 1979. Rhodesian military aircraft attacked ZAPU rebels near Livingstone and Lusaka, Zambia on February 17-23, 1979, resulting in the deaths of 18 individuals. The OAU foreign ministers condemned the Rhodesian government on March 1, 1979, and the UN Security Council condemned the Rhodesian government on March 8, 1979. Rhodesian government troops and military aircraft attacked ZAPU rebels near Lusaka and Mulungushi, Zambia on April 10-14, 1979, resulting in the deaths of twelve individuals. The Cuban government condemned the Rhodesian government on April 14, 1979. The OAU and the British government condemned the Rhodesian government on April 15, 1979. Parliamentary elections were held on April 10-20, 1979, and the UANC won 51 out of 100 seats in the House of Assembly, The RF won 28 seats in the House of Assembly. The PF boycotted the parliamentary elections. On April 26, 1979, the OAU declared the Rhodesian elections null and void. The UN Security Council condemned the Rhodesian elections on April 30, 1979. The Rhodesian parliament was dissolved on May 4, 1979, and the new parliament was sworn in on May 8, 1979. The Rhodesian parliament elected Josiah Gumede as president on May 28, 1979, and Bishop Abel Muzorewa of the UANC formed a government as prime minister on May 29, 1979. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) had announced its refusal to recognize the government of Prime Minister Muzorewa on May 26, 1979. The new constitution went into effect on June 1 1979. Rhodesian government troops attacked ZAPU rebels near Lusaka, Zambia on June 26-July 1, 1979, resulting in the deaths of some 50 individuals and one Rhodesian military personnel. Rhodesian government troops attacked PF rebel bases in Mozambique on September 6-8, 1979, resulting in the deaths of 300 PF rebels and 15 Rhodesian soldiers. The heads of state of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) expressed support for PF rebels on September 8, 1979. Lord Carrington of Britain, representing the Commonwealth of Nations (CON), mediated negotiations between representatives of the Rhodesian government and PF in London beginning on September 10, 1979. Rhodesia government troops attacked ZAPU rebels near Lusaka, Zambia on November 2-3, 1979, resulting in the deaths of some 50 ZAPU rebels and 22 Rhodesian military personnel. The UN Security Council condemned the Rhodesian government on November 23, 1979. Rhodesian military aircraft bombed a ZAPU base near Lusaka, Zambia on November 25, 1979. On December 12, 1979, the CON established the Commonwealth Monitoring Force (CMF), which consisted of 1,250 British troops, 150 Australian troops, 24 Fijian troops, 50 Kenyan troops and 74 New Zealand troops commanded by Major General John Acland of Britain, to monitor the ceasefire agreement and demobilization of combatants. Lord Soames of Britain was appointed as colonial governor in Rhodesia on December 7, 1979. The British government lifted economic sanctions (trade embargo) against Rhodesia on December 12, 1979. The U.S. government lifted economic sanctions (trade restrictions and oil embargo) against Rhodesia on December 15, 1979. The UN Security Council lifted economic sanctions and military sanctions against Rhodesia on December 21, 1979. Representatives of the Rhodesian government and PF signed a ceasefire agreement in London on December 21, 1979. More than 20,000 individuals, including some 1,361 Rhodesian military personnel and more than 10,000 rebels, were killed during the conflict. Some one million Rhodesians were internally-displaced, and 100,000 Rhodesians fled as refugees to Botswana, Mozambique, and Zambia during the conflict.
Post-Conflict Phase (December 22, 1979-July 25, 1990): South African personnel were withdrawn from Rhodesia on January 30, 1980. Parliamentary elections were held on February 14-29, 1980, and the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) won 57 out of 100 seats in the House of Assembly. The Zimbabwe African People’s Union – Patriotic Front (ZAPU-PF) and the RF each won 20 seats in the House of Assembly. The CON sent 63 observers from eleven countries led by Rajeshwar Dayal of India to monitor the parliamentary elections from January 25 to March 2, 1980. The governments of Australia, Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom, and West Germany sent short-term observers to monitor the parliamentary elections. Several non-governmental organizations, including Freedom House and the American Committee on Africa (ACOA), send short-term observers to monitor the parliamentary elections. The government lifted martial law on March 20, 1980. The CMF was withdrawn from the country on March 16, 1980. Zimbabwe was proclaimed as an independent state on April 18, 1980. Robert Mugabe formed a coalition government, which consisted of representatives of the ZANU and ZAPU, on April 18, 1980. Prime Minister Robert Mugabe declared a state-of-emergency in July 1980. Zimbabwe joined the CON on October 1, 1980. The North Korean government agreed to provide military assistance (military advisors, training, and weapons) to the government of Zimbabwe in October 1980. Members of the ZANLA and ZIRPA clashed in Bulawayo on November 9-10, 1980, resulting in the deaths of 55 individuals. Members of the ZANLA and the ZIRPA clashed in Bulawayo on February 7-13, 1981, resulting in the deaths of some 300 individuals. North Korean military advisors arrived in Zimbabwe in August 1981. ZANLA and ZIPRA were merged into the national armed forces on November 7, 1981. On February 17, 1982, Prime Minister Robert Mugabe dismissed Joshua Nkomo and three other members of ZAPU from the coalition government after disclosing a plot to overthrow the government. On March 11, 1982, Dumiso Dabengwa, Lookout Masuku, and four other leading ZIRPA members were arrested and charged with treason. The North Korean-trained Zimbabwean military personnel, which were known as the Fifth Brigade, launched Operation Gukurahundi in January 1983. Government soldiers massacred 55 men and women in Lupane in western Zimbabwe on March 5, 1983. Joshua Nkomo took refuge in Botswana on March 8, 1983, and later went into exile in Britain. Some members of the ZAPU launched an insurgency the government in the southern province of Matabeleland beginning on March 8, 1983. Government troops attacked ZAPU rebels in Botswana on November 8 and December 20, 1983, resulting in the death of one government soldier. The government adopted a new constitution on August 8, 1984. Twenty members of the ZAPU were killed in political violence in Beitbridge on November 10, 1984. Legislative elections were held between June 26 and July 14, 1985, and ZANU won 64 out of 80 contested seats in the House of Assembly. The ZAPU won 15 seats in the House of Assembly. The International Human Rights Law Group (IHRLG) sent short-term observers to monitor the legislative elections. The London-based human rights non-governmental organization Amnesty International condemned the government for human rights abuses against members of opposition political parties on November 13, 1985. Prime Minister Robert Mugabe suspended ZAPU on September 22, 1987. The House of Assembly elected Robert Mugabe as president on December 22, 1987. President Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo signed the Unity Accord, which provided for the merger of ZANU and ZAPU into the ZANU-PF on December 22, 1987. Joshua Nkomo was appointed as Vice-President of Zimbabwe. Some 20,000 civilians, mostly members of the minority Ndebele ethnic group, were killed by government soldiers in Matabeleland province in the 1980s. On April 19, 1988, President Mugabe announced an amnesty for political dissidents and former rebels, and 122 such individuals surrendered over the next few weeks. Legislative elections were held on March 27-30, 1990, and the ZANU-PF won 116 out of contested 120 contested seats in the House of Assembly. President Mugabe was re-elected with 78 percent of the vote on March 30, 1990. President Mugabe lifted the state-of-emergency on July 25, 1990.
Post-Crisis Phase (July 26, 1990-March 29, 2000): Legislative elections were held on April 8-9, 1995, and the ZANU-PF won 148 out of 150 seats in the House of Assembly. President Mugabe was re-elected with 92 percent of the vote on March 16-17, 1996. Most opposition political parties boycotted the presidential election, and only 31 percent of the electorate voted in the elections. A white farmer, Sylvia Jackson, was killed by an employee at her farm in Marondera on November 13, 1998. On April 29, 1999, President Mugabe appointed a 395-member constitutional commission to draft a new constitution. Vice President Joshua Nkomo died of cancer on July 1, 1999. The Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) was established under the leadership of Morgan Tsvangirai on September 11, 1999. The Italian government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of $22 million in economic assistance) against the government of Zimbabwe on September 15, 1999. The Dutch government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of $15 million in economic assistance) against the government of Zimbabwe on September 29, 1999. The Japanese government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government of Zimbabwe in 1999. The MDC held its first Congress beginning on January 29, 2000. A draft constitution for Zimbabwe was rejected in a referendum by 55 percent of the voters on February 12-13, 2000. The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) condemned the government of Zimbabwe for human rights abuses on March 17, 2000.
Crisis Phase (March 30, 2000-February 11, 2009): A supporter of the MDC was killed in political violence in northern Zimbabwe on March 30, 2000. A government policeman was killed in a clash with black squatters in a farm near Marondera on April 4, 2000. The U.S. government condemned the government of Zimbabwe on April 6, 2000. On April 7, 2000, the House of Assembly approved legislation that provided the government with the authority to seized white-owned farms. ZANU-PF supporters killed two members of the MDC near Buhera in eastern Zimbabwe, and ZANU-PF supporters killed a white farmer near Murowe in the Marondera area on April 15, 2000. British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook condemned the killing of the white farmer. ZANU-PF supporters killed a white farmer in southwest Zimbabwe on April 18, 2000. Two supporters of the MDC were killed in political violence in Harare and Shamva on April 24, 2000. On April 30, 2000, British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook condemned the government of Zimbabwe for its land redistribution program. The British government imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance and arms embargo) against the government of Zimbabwe beginning on May 3, 2000. A white farmer, John Weeks, was killed by attackers at his home southwest of Harare on May 7, 2000. On May 14, 2000, a white farmer, Alan Dunn, died as a result of an attack at his farm. The National Democratic Institute (NDI) deployed a pre-election assessment mission consisting of 12 personnel led by Alex Akwueme of Nigeria on May 15-22, 2000. One individual was killed in political violence in Harare on May 16, 2000, and two individuals were killed in political violence in Mudzi district on May 18, 2000. The WCC and the All Africa Conference of Churches (AACC) sent a five-member fact-finding mission to investigate the political situation in the country on May 20-29, 2000. Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili of Lesotho expressed support for the government of President Mugabe on May 23, 2000. One support of the ZANU-PF was killed in political violence in Mvurwi on May 26, 2000. A white farmer, Tony Oates, was killed along with an attacker at his home northwest of Harare on June 1, 2000. One supporter of the MDC was also killed in political violence in the town of Bikita on June 1, 2000. Legislative elections were held on June 24-25, 2000, and ZANU-PF won 62 out of 120 contested seats in the House of Assembly. The MDC won 57 seats in the House of Assembly. The CON sent 44 short-term observers led by General Abdulsalami Abubakar of Nigeria to monitor the legislative elections from May 25 to June 27, 2000. The OAU sent 28 short-term observers led by Amos Sawyer of Liberia to monitor the legislative elections from June 17 to June 27, 2000. The Southern African Development Community (SADC) sent 25 short-term observers from ten countries led by Nora Schimming-Chase of Namibia to monitor the legislative elections from May 26 to June 27, 2000. The European Union (EU) sent 13 election experts, 94 long-term observers, and 79 short-term observers from 17 countries led by Pierre Schori of Sweden to monitor the legislative elections from May 31 to July 4, 2000. The WCC and AACC established a joint mission consisting of 40 short-term observers to monitor the legislative elections on June 22-27, 2000. The South African government sent 20 short-term observers to monitor the legislative elections, and the mission reported that the legislative elections were “largely free and fair” on September 14, 2000. The Japanese government sent six short-term observers to monitor the legislative elections on June 22-27, 2000. The Australian Parliamentary Observer Group (APOG-Zimbabwe), which consisted of three short-term observers, monitored the legislative elections on June 21-27, 2000. Government police raided MDC offices on September 15, 2000. The British government condemned the government of Zimbabwe on September 15, 2000. The U.S. government condemned the government of Zimbabwe for human rights abuses on February 16, 2001. A white farmer, Gloria Olds, was killed on her farm near Bulawayo on March 4, 2001. The European Parliamentary condemned the government of Zimbabwe on March 15, 2001. One student was killed by government policemen during demonstrations in Harare on April 8, 2001. The Canadian government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of development assistance) against the government of Zimbabwe on May 11, 2001. U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell condemned President Robert Mugabe on May 25, 2001. Two individuals were killed in political violence in Harare Township on July 3, 2001. Two militants were killed during an attack against a white farm in Hwedza district on September 17, 2001. On October 3, 2001, President Bakili Muluzi of Malawi, chairman of the SADC, condemned the “disregard of the rule of law” in Zimbabwe. Three members of the MDC were killed in political violence on December 20-24, 2001. Three supporters of the MDC were killed in political violence in Masvingo province on January 15-21, 2002. President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria mediated negotiations between the parties beginning on January 20, 2002. The EU deployed 26 short-term observers from six countries led by Pierre Schori to monitor the upcoming presidential election, but the EU decided to withdraw the observers from the country on February 18, 2002. The EU imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) and economic sanctions (assets freeze and travel ban) against President Mugabe and other government officials on February 18, 2002. The U.S. government imposed economic sanctions (travel ban) against Zimbabwean government officials on February 23, 2002. On February 25, 2002, Morgan Tsvangirai was arrested by government police. President Robert Mugabe was re-elected for a six-year term with some 56 percent of the vote on March 11, 2002. Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the opposition MDC, claimed election fraud. The South African government sent 60 observers led by Sam Motsuenyane to monitor the presidential election from February 13 to March 12, 2002. The government of Norway sent 25 short-term observers led by Kare Vollan to monitor the presidential election from February 15 to March 13, 2002. The U.S. government sent 18 observers to monitor the presidential election from February 18 to March 13, 2002. The SADC sent 70 short-term observers to monitor the presidential election from February 13 to March 13, 2002. The government of Namibia sent five short-term observers to monitor the presidential election from February 15 to March 13, 2002. The Nigerian government sent 16 short-term observers led by Chief Ernest A. O. Shonekan to monitor the presidential election. The CON sent 42 observers and 19 staff members led by General Abdulsalami Abubakar of Nigeria to monitor the presidential election from February 23 to March 14, 2002. The OAU sent 24 short-term observers led by Gertrude Mongella of Tanzania to monitor the presidential election from February 28 to March 13, 2002. The WCC and AACC jointly sent 58 short-term observers to monitor the presidential elections from March 1 to March 12, 2002. The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) sent short-term observers led by Siteke Mwale of Zambia to monitor the presidential election from March 9 to March 13, 2002. The Tanzanian government sent short-term observers to monitor the presidential election. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) sent short-term observers to monitor the presidential election. A white farmer, Terry Ford, was killed by black squatters on his farm near Norton on March 18, 2002. The CON imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the government of Zimbabwe on March 19, 2002. On March 20, 2002, the government formally charged Morgan Tsvangirai with treason over allegations of plotting to assassinate President Robert Mugabe. The governments of Nigeria and South Africa attempted to mediate negotiations between the government and MDC from April 3 to May 16, 2002. The British government imposed economic sanctions (assets freeze) against the ruling ZANU-PF on July 11, 2002. The U.S. government condemned the government of Zimbabwe for human rights abuses on March 4, 2003. The U.S. government imposed economic sanctions (assets freeze) against Zimbabwean leaders on March 7, 2003. The EU condemned the government of Zimbabwe for human rights abuses on March 28, 2003. The Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) condemned the government of Zimbabwe for human rights abuses on August 16, 2003. The government of Zimbabwe formally withdrew from the CON on December 7, 2003. As a result, the CON terminated diplomatic sanctions against the government of Zimbabwe on December 7, 2003. On January 23, 2004, government police raided the offices of the MDC in Bulawayo. On October 15, 2004, Morgan Tsvangirai was acquitted of treason by a court in Harare. Legislative elections were held on March 31, 2005, and ZANU-PF won 78 out of 120 contested seats in the House of Assembly. The MDC won 41 seats in the House of Assembly. The South African government sent observers to monitor the legislative elections from March 15 to April 2, 2005. The SADC sent 55 short-term observers led by Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka of South Africa to monitor the legislative elections from March 15 to April 2, 2005. The African Union (AU) sent ten short-term observers led by Kwadwo Afari-Gyan of Ghana to monitor the legislative elections from March 24 to April 2, 2005. Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the MDC, was arrested and tortured by government police on March 11, 2007. On March 12, 2007, the Canadian government condemned the violence in Zimbabwe and called for the release of Morgan Tsvangirai. On March 28, 2007, Morgan Tsvangirai and other party officials were arrested by government police at the MDC headquarters in Harare. Legislative elections were held on March 29, 2008, and the MDC faction led by Morgan Tsvangirai won 100 out of 210 seats in the House of Assembly. The ZANU-PF won 99 seats in the House of Assembly. A faction of the MDC led by Arthur Mutambara won ten seats in the House of Assembly. On March 29, 2008, Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the MDC, won the first round of presidential elections with 48 percent of the vote. The Pan African Parliament (PAP) sent observers to monitor the legislative elections. The Electoral Institute of Southern Africa (EISA) sent five long-term and 20 short-term observers from eight countries to monitor the legislative elections from March 9 to March 30, 2008. The East African Community (EAC) sent seven short-term observers led by Clarkson Karan of Kenya to monitor the legislative elections. The COMESA sent short-term observers from seven countries to monitor the legislative elections. The Electoral Commissions Forum (ECF) of the SADC sent 21 short-term observers from nine countries to monitor the legislative elections from March 18 to March 31, 2008. The SADC sent 163 short-term observers from eleven countries led by Jose Marcos Barrica of Angola to monitor the legislative elections from March 5 to March 30, 2008. On June 12, 2008, Morgan Tsvangirai was arrested by government police in Gweru, but was not charged with a crime. The same day, Tendai Biti, Secretary-General of the opposition MDC, was arrested and charged by the government with treason. Opposition presidential candidate, Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the MDC, withdrew from the second round of presidential elections on June 22, 2008. President Mugabe was re-elected with 86 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on June 27, 2008, and he was sworn in for a five-year term on June 29, 2008. The PAP sent 34 short-term observers and 26 staff members led by Marwick Khumalo of Swaziland to monitor the second round of presidential elections from June 8 to June 28, 2008. President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa mediated negotiations between representatives of the parties in Pretoria, South Africa beginning on July 5, 2008. On July 11, 2008, the governments of China and Russia vetoed a UN Security Council resolution that would have imposed economic sanctions against the government of Zimbabwe. The U.S. government imposed additional economic sanctions (ban on business dealings) against 17 Zimbabwean companies on July 25, 2008. On September 15, 2008, representatives of the government and MDC signed a South African-mediated power-sharing agreement in Harare, Zimbabwe, including provisions in which Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the MDC, would serve as prime minister (chair the Council of Ministers) and President Robert Mugabe would serve as chair of the National Security Council (NSC). Former President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa facilitated further negotiations regarding the composition of the government beginning on October 13, 2008. On October 21, 2008, the MDC called for new elections if the negotiations over the details of a power-sharing agreement are not successful. The South African government imposed economic sanctions (suspension of agriculture assistance) against the government of Zimbabwe on November 20, 2008. Former President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa mediated negotiations between the parties in South Africa beginning on November 25, 2008. The EU imposed additional economic sanctions (travel ban) on eleven Zimbabweans on December 8, 2008. The EU imposed additional economic sanctions (travel ban) against more than 60 Zimbabweans and companies on January 26, 2009. The EU travel ban included a total of 203 Zimbabweans and 40 companies. On February 11, 2009, Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the MDC, was sworn in as prime minister. More than 100 individuals were killed and more than 35,000 individuals were displaced during the crisis.
Post-Crisis Phase (February 12, 2009-present): On March 5, 2009, the U.S. government renewed economic sanctions against the government of Zimbabwe for an additional year. The Australian government pledged $6.4 million in economic assistance to the Zimbabwean government on March 11, 2009. The U.S. government pledged $73 million in economic assistance to the Zimbabwean government on June 12, 2009. The British government pledged a total of $98 million in economic assistance to the Zimbabwean government on June 22, 2009. On October 16, 2009, the MDC decided to boycott the national unity government (cabinet and council of ministers) after the arrested of senior MDC member Roy Bennett on terrorism charges. Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai ended talks on power-sharing with President Robert Mugabe on October 26, 2009. Prime Minister Tsvangirai decided to end the MDC boycott of the national unity government on November 6, 2009. On February 16, 2010, the EU decided to renew economic sanctions (assets freeze and travel ban on 200 individuals and 40 companies) for another year. The EU lifted economic sanctions (assets freeze and travel ban) against 35 individuals on February 15, 2011. The EU lifted economic sanctions (assets freeze and travel ban) on an additional 51 individuals and 20 companies on February 17, 2011. President Robert Mugabe and Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai agreed on the draft of a new constitution on January 17, 2013. The EU lifted economic sanctions (assets freeze and travel ban) against 21 individuals and one company on February 18, 2013. A new constitution was approved by 95 percent of voters in a referendum on March 16-17, 2013. The new constitution limits future presidents to two five-year terms in office, prohibits the president from vetoing legislation, and abolishes the post of prime minister. The EU lifted economic sanctions (assets freeze and travel ban) against 81 individuals and eight companies on March 25, 2013. President Robert Mugabe signed the new constitution on May 22, 2013. President Robert Mugabe was re-elected for a seventh term with 61 percent of the vote on July 31, 2013, and he was sworn in for a seventh term on August 22, 2013. Legislative elections were held on July 31, 2013, and the ZANU-PF won 160 out of 210 seats in the House of Assembly. The MDC won 49 seats in the House of Assembly. The African Union (AU) sent nine long-term observers and 60 short-term observers led by former President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from June 15 to August 2, 2013. The COMESA sent 27 short-term observers from seven countries led by Ambassador Bethuel Kiplagat of Kenya to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from July 27 to August 3, 2013. The SADC sent 573 short-term observers led by Bernard Kamillius Membe of Tanzania to monitor the legislative and presidential elections from July 15 to August 2, 2013. On August 9, 2013, the MDC filed a legal challenge against the results of the presidential election. On August 16, 2013, the MDC dropped its legal challenge to the results of the presidential election because it did not feel that it could get a fair hearing. On August 20, 2013, the U.S. government announced that its economic sanctions (travel ban on 120 individuals) would remain in place until there were further political reforms. The MDC boycotted the opening of the House of the Assembly on September 17, 2013. The EU lifted economic sanctions (assets freeze and travel ban) against eight individuals on February 17, 2014. On November 6 2017, Emmerson Mnangagwa was dismissed as vice-president by President Robert Mugabe.
Crisis Phase (November 14-2017-August 26, 2018): Members of the Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF) raided the homes of several officials in President Robert Mugabe’s government, including Finance Minister Ignatius Chombo, beginning on November 14, 2017. President Robert Mugabe was placed under house arrest by government soldiers. The SADC sent two envoys, Defence Minister Nosiviwe Maphisa-Nqakula of South Africa and State Security Minister Bongani Bongo of South Africa, to facilitate a resolution of the political crisis in Zimbabwe. On November 19, 2017, the ZANU-PF removed President Robert Mugabe as leader of the party and demanded that he resign the presidency. Former vice-president Emmerson Mnangagwa was named as the new leader of the ZANU-PF. President Robert Mugabe resigned on November 21, 2017. On November 23, 2017, military leaders agreed to grant immunity from prosecution to former President Robert Mugabe and former First Lady Grace Mugabe. Emmerson Mnangagwa was sworn in as acting president in Harare on November 24, 2017. Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the MDC, died on February 14, 2018. Legislative elections were held on July 30, 2018. Emmerson Mnangagwa was elected president with 51 percent of the vote on July 30, 2018. Government troops clashed with MDC supporters in Harare on August 1, 2018, resulting in the deaths of six individuals. On August 10, 2018, MDC leader Nelson Chamisa claimed election fraud and filed a challenged to the election results with the Constitutional Court. On August 24, 2018, the Constitutional Court confirmed the election of Emmerson Mnangagwa as president. Emmerson Mnangagwa was inaugurated as president in Harare on August 26, 2018.
Post-Crisis Phase (August 27, 2018-present): Former president Robert Mugabe died on September 6, 2019. On August 7, 2020, President Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa appointed two special envoys to Zimbabwe, Sydney Mufamadi and Baleka Mbete.
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Selected Bibliography
Barber, James P. 1966. “Rhodesia: The Constitutional Conflict,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 4 (4): pp. 457-469.
Cefkin, J. Leo. 1968. “The Rhodesian Question at the United Nations.” International Organization, vol. 22, pp. 649-669.
Cilliers, J. K. 1985. Counter-Insurgency in Rhodesia, London and Sydney: Croom Helm.
Kriger, Norma. 2005. “ZANU(PF) Strategies in General Elections, 1980-2000: Discourse and Coercion,” African Affairs, vol. 104 (414), pp. 1-34.
Laakso, Liisa. 2002. “The Politics of International Election Observation: The Case of Zimbabwe in 2000,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 40 (3), pp. 437-464.
McKinney, Robert. 1969. “Sanctions and the Rhodesian Economy,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 7 (4), pp. 559-581.
Rothchild, Donald. 1996. “Successful Mediation: Lord Carrington and the Rhodesian Settlement.” In Chester A. Crocker and Fen Osler Hampson, ed. Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Washington DC: US Institute of Peace Press, pp. 475-486.