Pre-Crisis Phase (August 16, 1960-December 20, 1963): Cyprus formally achieved its independence from the United Kingdom on August 16, 1960. Some 950 Greek troops and 650 Turkish troops were deployed in Cyprus to guarantee the protection of the ethnic Greek and Turkish communities. Cyprus joined the Commonwealth of Nations (CON) on March 13, 1961. On November 30, 1963, Archbishop Makarios III, president of Cyprus, proposed in a memorandum that he would seek to amend the 1960 constitution allowing Cyprus to become a unified state. The government of Turkey declared that the proposal was unacceptable on December 6, 1963.
Crisis Phase (December 21, 1963- January 20, 1964): Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots clashed in Nicosia on December 21, 1963, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. Greek and Turkish troops and aircraft mobilized in support of Greek and Turkish Cypriots in Nicosia and the surrounding area on December 24, 1963. The governments of the Greece, Turkey, and the UK jointly offered their good offices on December 24, 1963, and the parties agreed to a ceasefire facilitated by the Greece, Turkey, and the UK on December 25, 1963. On December 26, 1963, the three countries (Greece, Turkey, and UK) deployed the Joint Truce Force (JTF), which consisted of some 7,800 troops from the UK (6,000), Greece (1,000), and Turkey (800) commanded by Major-General Peter Young from the UK, to monitor the ceasefire and maintain law and order. The governments of Greece, Turkey, and the UK facilitated negotiations between Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot representatives in London beginning on January 15, 1964. Some 150 individuals were killed during the crisis.
Conflict Phase (January 21, 1964-August 10, 1964): Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots engaged in military hostilities beginning on January 21, 1964. The U.S. government mobilized naval ships in the area between January 22, 1964 and September 2, 1964. Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots clashed near Paphos on January 24, 1964, resulting in the deaths of two Greek Cypriots. Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots clashed near Ayios Sozomenos on February 6-7, 1964, resulting in the deaths of six Greek Cypriots and five Turkish Cypriots. Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots clashed near Limassol on February 11-13, 1964, resulting in the deaths of ten Turkish Cypriots. The governments of Cyprus and the UK referred the matter to the United Nations (UN) Security Council on February 15, 1964. Major-General Richard Michael Carver of the UK took command of the Joint Truce Force (JTF) on February 19, 1964. On March 4, 1964, the UN Security Council established the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) to “prevent a recurrence of fighting between the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities and to contribute to the maintenance and restoration of law and order and a return to normal conditions” on Cyprus. The UNFICYP was deployed, and the JTF was disbanded on March 27, 1964. UNFICYP consisted of 6,411 military personnel (maximum strength in June 1964) commanded by General P. S. Gyani of India, as well as some 175 civilian police personnel deployed beginning on April 14, 1964. Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots clashed near Ktima on March 7-9, 1964, resulting in the deaths of six Greek Cypriots and one Turkish Cypriot. The UN secretary-general appealed for a ceasefire on March 9, 1964. The government of Turkey threatened to use military force in Cyprus to protect Turkish Cypriots on March 12, 1964. Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots clashed near Lefka on March 19, 1964, resulting in the deaths of two Turkish Cypriots and one Greek Cypriot. The UN Security Council authorized the appointment of a UN mediator, and Sakari Tuomioja of Finland was appointed as mediator on March 25, 1964. UN Secretary-General U Thant appointed Galo Plaza Lasso of Ecuador as UN special representative in Cyprus on May 11, 1964. The government of Turkey announced that it had abandoned plans to intervene in Cyprus on June 5, 1964. Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots resumed military hostilities in Kokkina on August 6, 1964. President Makarios referred the matter to the UN Security Council on August 8, 1964, and the UN Security Council demanded a ceasefire on August 9, 1964. Turkish military aircraft attacked Greek Cypriot troops near Kokkina on August 9, 1964. U.S. President Lyndon Johnson appealed for peaceful negotiations on August 9, 1964. President Makarios appealed to the governments of the Soviet Union and Egypt for military assistance on August 9, 1964. Prime Minister Khrushchev of the Soviet Union expressed support for the Greek Cypriot government on August 9, 1964. The parties agreed to a ceasefire on August 10, 1964. Some 300 to 400 individuals, including 193 Turkish Cypriots and 133 Greek Cypriots, were killed. Some 20,000 to 25,000 Turkish Cypriots were displaced during the conflict.
Post-Conflict Phase (August 11, 1964-July 19, 1974): President Nasser of Egypt expressed support for the Greek Cypriot government on August 11, 1964. UN mediator Sakari Tuomioja died in Helsinki on September 9, 1964, and he was succeeded as UN mediator by Galo Plaza Lasso of Ecuador on September 16, 1964. Galo Plaza Lasso resigned as UN mediator on December 31, 1965. Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots clashed near the villages of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou from July 20 to August 6, 1967, resulting in the deaths of ten individuals. Greek Cypriot police clashed with Turkish Cypriots near the villages of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou on November 15-16, 1967, resulting in the deaths of 24 Turkish Cypriots and four Greek Cypriots. The government of Turkey sent an ultimatum to Greece on November 17, 1967, which called for the immediate withdrawal of some 20,000 Greek troops from Cyprus. Greece rejected the Turkish ultimatum on November 22, 1967. The UN secretary-general appealed for peaceful negotiations on November 22 and November 24, 1967. U.S. President Lyndon Johnson appointed Cyrus Vance as mediator in the dispute on November 22, 1967. The UN Security Council appealed for peaceful negotiations on November 25, 1967. Cyrus Vance mediated a troops withdrawal (demobilization) agreement between Greece and Turkey on December 1, 1967. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Secretary-General Manlio Brosio attempted to mediate between Greek and Turkish representatives on November 23-28, 1967. Greece began the withdrawal of its troops from Cyprus on December 8, 1967, and Greece completed the troop withdrawal on January 16, 1968. President Makarios was re-elected to a second term on February 25, 1968. Legislative elections were held on July 5, 1970, and the United Party (Eniaion) won 15 out of 35 seats in the House of Representatives. The Progressive Party of Working People (Anorthotikó Kómma Ergazómenou Laoú – AKEL) won nine seats in the House of Representatives. President Makarios was overthrown in a military rebellion on July 15, 1974, and Nicos Sampson assumed the presidency on July 16, 1974. Some 300 individuals were killed during the military rebellion on July 15-16, 1974. Prime Minister Bulent Ecevit of Turkey condemned the military rebellion on July 15, 1974, and mobilized troops in opposition to the military rebellion beginning on July 16, 1974. Some 350 individuals were killed in political violence between August 1964 and July 1974.
Conflict Phase (July 20, 1974-August 16, 1974): Some 40,000 Turkish troops occupied the Turkish Cypriot enclave on the north coast of Cyprus beginning on July 20, 1974. The UN Security Council appealed for a ceasefire and withdrawal of foreign troops from Cyprus on July 20, 1974. The parties agreed to ceasefire mediated by the U.S. government, which went into effect on July 22, 1974. Prime Minister Konstantine Karamanlis of Greece provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to deposed President Makarios on July 24, 1974. Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots resumed military hostilities on August 14, 1974, and Turkish troops occupied northern Cyprus. The UN Security Council appealed for a ceasefire, and the parties agreed to a ceasefire on August 16, 1974. Cyprus was divided into a Turkish Cypriot sector and a Greek Cypriot sector. Some 5,000 individuals, including 300 Turkish soldiers, were killed during the conflict. Some 250,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict.
Post-Conflict Phase (August 17, 1974-present): President Markarios was returned to power on December 7, 1974. In February 1975, the U.S. government imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against Turkey after a Turkish Cypriot Federated State was proclaimed. UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim established a good offices mission for Cyprus on April 28, 1975, and appointed Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru his special representative to Cyprus on September 18, 1975. The UN General Assembly demanded the withdrawal of foreign armed forces from Cyprus on November 20, 1975. Legislative elections were held on September 5, 1976, and the Democratic Front won 21 out of 35 seats in the House of Representatives. The AKEL won nine seats in the House of Representatives. On February 12, 1977, President Markarios and Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktas signed a UN-facilitated agreement confirming that a future Cyprus settlement would be based on a federation. President Markarios died on August 3, 1977, and Spyros Kyprianou was appointed as interim president. Legislative elections were held on May 24, 1981, and the AKEL won 12 out of 35 seats in the House of Representatives. The Democratic Rally (Dimokratikos Sinagermos – DS) won 12 seats in the House of Representatives. UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim ended his good offices mission to Cyprus at the end of his second term as UN secretary-general on December 31, 1981. UN Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar initiated a good offices mission to Cyprus in January 1982. Turkish Cypriots proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) on November 15, 1983. Legislative elections were held on December 8, 1985, and the DS won 19 out of 56 seats in the House of Representatives. The Democratic Party (Dimokratikon Komma – DK) won 16 seats in the House of Representatives. Legislative elections were held on May 19, 1991, and the DS won 20 out of 56 seats in the House of Representatives. The AKEL won 18 seats in the House of Representatives. UN Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar ended his good offices mission to Cyprus as the end of his second term as UN secretary-general on December 31, 1991. UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali initiated a good offices mission to Cyprus on April 3, 1992. Glafkos Clerides of the DS was elected president with 50 percent of the vote in a runoff election on February 14, 1993, and he was inaugurated as president on February 28, 1993. Some 167 UN personnel were killed in Cyprus from March 27, 1964 to March 31, 1996. The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) sent a three-member fact-finding mission (Egypt, Finland, Ireland) headed by M. Ferris of Ireland to investigate the situation in Cyprus on January 17-20, 1994. Legislative elections were held on May 26, 1996, and the DS won 20 out of 56 seats in the House of Representatives. The AKEL won 19 seats in the House of Representatives. UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali ended his good offices mission to Cyprus at the end of his first term on December 31, 1996. Glafcos Clerides of the DS was elected president with 50.8 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections on February 15, 1998. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan initiated a good offices mission to Cyprus, and appointed Alvaro de Soto of Peru as special envoy to Cyprus on November 1, 1999. Legislative elections were held on May 27, 2001, and the AKEL won a plurality of 20 out of 59 seats in the House of Representatives. The DS won 19 seats in the House of Representatives. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan presented a peace proposal to the parties on November 11, 2002. Tassos Papadopoulos of the DK was elected president with 51.5 percent of the vote on February 16, 2003. Legislative elections were held in the TRNC on December 15, 2003, and the Republican Turkish Party (Cumhuriyetci Turk Partisi – CTP) won 19 out of 50 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. Greek Cypriots rejected the UN peace proposal (“Annan Plan”) with 76 percent of the vote in a referendum on April 24, 2004, and Turkish Cypriots approved the peace proposal with 65 percent of the vote. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan ended his good offices mission, and UN Special Envoy Alvaro de Soto resigned on May 28, 2004. Legislative elections were held in the TRNC on January 20, 2005, and the CTP won 25 out of 50 seats in the Assembly of the Republic. Mehmet Ali Talat of the CTP was elected president of the TRNC with 55.8 percent of the vote on April 17, 2005. Legislative elections were held on May 21, 2006, and the AKEL won 18 out of 56 seats in the House of Representatives. The DS won 18 seats in the House of Representatives, and the DK won 11 seats in the House of Representatives. Demetris Christofias of the AKEL was elected in the second round of presidential elections with 53% of the vote on February 24, 2008. On March 21, 2008, Cyprus President Demetris Christofias and Turkish Cypriot leader Mehmet Ali Talat agreed to resume UN-facilitated negotiations. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon appointed Alexander Downer of Australia as Special Envoy to Cyprus on July 17, 2008. UN-facilitated negotiations between the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders began in Nicosia on September 3, 2008. Legislative elections were held in northern Cyprus on April 19, 2009, and the right-wing National Unity Party (Ulusal Birlik Partisi – UBP) won 44% of the vote. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon facilitated negotiations between the leaders of the Republic of Cyprus and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus from January 31, 2010 to January 24, 2012. Dervis Eroglu of the UBP was elected president of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus on April 18, 2010, and he was inaugurated as president on April 23, 2010. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon appointed Lisa Buttenheim of the U.S. as UN Special Representative and Head of UNFICYP on June 2, 2010. Legislative elections were held on May 22, 2011, and the DS won 20 out of 56 seats in the House of Representatives. The AKEL won 19 out of 56 seats in the House of Representatives. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) sent nine observers from five countries to monitor the legislative elections from May 10 to May 27, 2011. Rauf Denktash, former president of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus on January 13, 2012. Nicos Anastasiades of the DS was elected president with the 57 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on February 24, 2013. As of December 31, 2014, UNFICYP consisted of 858 troops, 66 civilian police personnel, and 37 international civilian staff personnel on December 31, 2014. UNFICYP fatalities included 171 military personnel, three civilian police personnel, and five international civilian staff .
[Source: Associated Press (AP), March 11, 2003; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 116-117, 151-152; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 366-371; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), February 17, 2003, December 15, 2003, April 24, 2004, February 21, 2005, May 21, 2006, July 8, 2006, February 17, 2008, March 21, 2008, September 3, 2008, November 3, 2008, January 21, 2009, April 19, 2009, January 11, 2010, January 30, 2010, February 1, 2010, April 18, 2010, May 26, 2010, May 23, 2011, July 7, 2011, January 13, 2012, April 27, 2012, February 17, 2013, February 25, 2013; Butterworth, 1976, 375-376; Clodfelter, 1992, 980-981, 987; Donelan and Grieve, 1973, 116-122; Facts on File, September 21-27, 1967, November 23-29, 1967, December 7-13, 1967, March 7-13, 1968, July 20, 1974, July 27, 1974, October 16, 1976, August 20, 1977; Jessup, 1998, 143-144; Keesing’s Record of World Events, June 13-20, 1964, September 5-12, 1964, February 1993; Langer, 1972, 1295-1297; Tillema, 1991, 51-52, 53, 55-56; Wainhouse, 1966, 436-460; Weisburd, 1997, 128-131, 152-155.]
Bibliography
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